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LO 1 Define cognition and explain how it is related to thinking. (p. 261)

Cognition is the mental activity associated with obtaining, converting, and using knowledge. Thinking is a specific type of cognition, which involves coming to a decision, reaching a solution, forming a belief, or developing an attitude. Cognition is a broad term that describes mental activity, and thinking is a subset of cognition.

LO 2 Define concepts and identify how they are organized. (p. 262)

Concepts are mental representations of categories of objects, situations, and ideas that belong together based on their central features or characteristics. Psychologists often use a three-level hierarchy to categorize objects. At the top of the hierarchy are superordinate concepts, the broadest category encompassing all the objects belonging to it. Below is the more specific midlevel of the hierarchy, the category used most often to identify objects. At the bottom of the hierarchy is the subordinate-level, the most specific category.

LO 3 Differentiate between formal concepts and natural concepts. (p. 263)

Formal concepts are created through rigid and logical rules or features of a concept. Natural concepts, on the other hand, are acquired through everyday experience. Natural concepts don’t have the same types of rigid rules for identification that formal concepts do, and this makes them harder to outline. We organize our worlds with the help of prototypes, which are the ideal or most representative examples of particular natural concepts.

LO 4 Describe the biological processes associated with cognition. (p. 267)

The biology of cognition is evident in the brain, both on a micro and macro level. Changes at the level of the neuron, whether through rewiring, heightened excitability, or increased efficiency of synaptic transmission, make it possible to store, retrieve, and manipulate information. The plasticity of the brain enables dramatic recoveries from trauma.

LO 5 Explain how trial and error and algorithms can be used to solve problems. (p. 271)

Problem solving refers to the variety of approaches used to achieve goals. One approach to problem solving is trial and error, which involves finding a solution through a series of attempts. Algorithms provide a virtually guaranteed solution to a problem by using formulas or sets of rules. Unlike trial and error, algorithms ensure that you will reach a solution if you follow all the steps.

LO 6 Identify different types of heuristics used to solve problems. (p. 272)

Heuristics are problem-solving approaches that incorporate a rule of thumb or broad application of a strategy. One commonly used heuristic involves creating subgoals or subproblems. Another commonly used heuristic is means–ends analysis, which involves figuring out how to decrease the distance between a goal and the current status. Using means–ends analysis, you can break a problem into subproblems and solve them independently.

LO 7 Define decision making and explain how heuristics can lead us astray. (p. 274)

Decision making generally refers to the cognitive process of choosing among various ways to reach a goal. Sometimes a decision is based on a single feature. With more complex decisions, we tend to consider a variety of features. Using the availability heuristic, we predict the probability of something happening in the future based on how easily we can recall a similar type of event from the past. If we can easily recall a similar type of event, then we judge that event as being more likely to occur. With the representativeness heuristic, we evaluate the degree to which the primary characteristics of an event, person, or situation are similar to our prototype.

LO 8 Define language and give examples of its basic elements. (p. 280)

Language is a system for using symbols to think and communicate. These symbols are words, gestures, or sounds, and there are specific rules for putting them together. Phonemes are the basic building blocks of spoken language. Morphemes consist of one or more phonemes and represent the fundamental units of meaning. The syntax of a language refers to the collection of rules guiding word choice and word order. Grammar refers to the rules associated with word and sentence structures and how these are formed from their components. Semantics refers to rules that are used to bring meaning to words and sentences. Pragmatics refers to the social rules for using language.

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LO 9 Explain the linguistic relativity hypothesis and its relation to language and thought. (p. 284)

The linguistic relativity hypothesis proposes that language differences lead to disparities in thinking and perception. Most psychologists agree that although language might not determine thinking and perception, it certainly can influence it.

LO 10 Examine and distinguish among various theories of intelligence. (p. 287)

Charles Spearman speculated that intelligence consists of a general intelligence (or g factor), which refers to a singular underlying aptitude or intellectual ability. Howard Gardner suggested we have multiple intelligences, proposing eight different types of intelligences or “frames of mind”: linguistic (verbal), logical-mathematical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, musical, intrapersonal, interpersonal, and naturalist. Robert Sternberg proposed three kinds of intelligences. His triarchic theory of intelligence suggests that humans have varying degrees of analytical, creative, and practical abilities.

LO 11 Describe how intelligence is measured and identify important characteristics of assessment. (p. 289)

Some tests of intelligence aim to measure aptitude, or a person’s potential for learning. Measures of achievement are designed to assess acquired knowledge (what a person has learned). Psychologists must ensure the accurate assessment of intelligence by determining validity, that is, the degree to which the test measures what it intends to measure. Another important characteristic is reliability, the ability of a test to provide consistent, reproducible results. A reliable test, given repeatedly, will result in similar scores.

LO 12 Define creativity and its associated characteristics. (p. 297)

Creativity is the ability to construct valuable results in innovative ways. Most psychologists agree on the basic characteristics of creativity, including originality, fluency, and flexibility. Because creativity is not evident in a singular or uniform manner, it is difficult to measure.