LO 1 Define motivation. (p. 359)

Motivation is a stimulus that can direct the way we behave, think, and feel. A motivated behavior tends to be guided (that is, it has a direction), energized, and persistent. When a behavior is reinforced, an association is established between the behavior and its consequence. With motivated behavior, this association becomes the incentive, or reason, to repeat the behavior.

LO 2 Explain how extrinsic and intrinsic motivation impact behavior. (p. 360)

When a learned behavior is motivated by the incentive of external reinforcers in the environment, there is an extrinsic motivation to continue that behavior. Intrinsic motivation occurs when a learned behavior is motivated by the prospect of internal reinforcers. Performing a behavior because it is inherently interesting or satisfying exemplifies intrinsic motivation, when the reinforcers originate from within.

399

LO 3 Summarize instinct theory. (p. 361)

Instinct theory proposes that through evolution some behaviors are etched into our genetic make-up, and are consistent from one member of the species to the next. Instincts, then, are complex behaviors that are fixed, unlearned, and consistent within a species. Although they apply to other nonhuman animals, there are limited data suggesting that humans display instincts.

LO 4 Describe drive-reduction theory and explain how it relates to motivation. (p. 363)

The drive-reduction theory of motivation suggests that biological needs and homeostasis motivate us. If a need is not fulfilled, this creates a drive, or state of tension, that pushes us or motivates behaviors to meet the need. Once a need is met, the drive is reduced, at least temporarily, because this is an ongoing process, as the need inevitably returns.

LO 5 Explain how arousal theory relates to motivation. (p. 365)

According to arousal theory, humans seek an optimal level of arousal, which is a level of alertness and engagement in the world. What constitutes an optimal level of arousal is variable, and depends on individual differences. Some people seem to be sensation seekers; that is, they seek activities that increase arousal.

LO 6 Outline Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. (p. 365)

The needs in Maslow’s hierarchy, often depicted as a pyramid, are considered to be universal and are ordered in terms of the strength of their associated drive, with the most critical needs, those that are physiological, at the bottom. Moving up the pyramid are increasingly higher-level needs: safety needs; love and belongingness needs; esteem needs; self-actualization; and self-transcendence. Maslow suggested that basic needs must be met before higher-level needs motivate behavior.

LO 7 Discuss how the stomach and the hypothalamus make us feel hunger. (p. 369)

In a classic experiment, researchers confirmed the stomach and brain both work to indicate hunger. When glucose levels dip, the stomach and liver send signals to the brain that something must be done about this reduced energy source. The brain, in turn, initiates a sense of hunger. Signals from the digestive system are sent to the hypothalamus, which then transmits signals to higher regions of the brain. When the lateral hypothalamus is activated, appetite increases. If the ventromedial hypothalamus becomes activated, appetite declines, causing an animal to stop eating.

LO 8 Outline the characteristics of the major eating disorders. (p. 373)

Anorexia nervosa is a serious, life-threatening eating disorder characterized by a significantly low body weight in relation to age, sex, development, and physical health; an extreme fear of gaining weight or getting fat; an altered and distorted sense of body weight and figure; and self-imposed restrictions on “energy intake” (calories) needed to maintain a healthy weight. Bulimia nervosa is characterized by recurrent episodes of binge eating followed by purging (self-induced vomiting, misuse of laxatives, fasting, or excessive exercise). Binge-eating disorder is characterized by episodes during which a larger amount of food is consumed than most people would eat in a similar amount of time under similar circumstances. As in bulimia, the individual feels unable to control eating during that period of time, but the difference is that there are no excessive weight control or purging behaviors.

LO 9 Describe the human sexual response as identified by Masters and Johnson. (p. 375)

The human sexual response is the physiological pattern that occurs during sexual activity. Men and women tend to experience a similar pattern or cycle of excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution, but the duration of these phases varies from person to person.

LO 10 Define sexual orientation and summarize how it develops. (p. 377)

According to the American Psychological Association, sexual orientation is the “enduring pattern” of sexual, romantic, and emotional attraction that individuals exhibit toward the same sex, opposite sex, or both sexes. Sexual orientation may be heterosexual (when a person is attracted to members of the opposite sex), homosexual (attracted to members of the same sex), or bisexual (attracted to both sexes). Research has focused on the causes of sexual orientation, but there is no strong evidence pointing to any one factor or factors. Sexual orientation is the result of a complex interaction between nature and nurture.

LO 11 Identify the most common sexually transmitted infections. (p. 383)

Sexually transmitted infections (STIs) are caused by viruses and bacteria and are contracted through sexual activity. Having multiple sexual partners increases the risk of getting an STI; however, awareness that a partner has had (or is having) sex with other partners lowers the risk somewhat. Once aware of a partner’s activities, one is more inclined to take preventive measures, such as using condoms. Syphilis, gonorrhea, and chlamydia are bacterial infections. Genital herpes and human papillomavirus are viral infections.

400

LO 12 Define emotions and explain how they are different from moods. (p. 385)

An emotion is a psychological state that includes a subjective or inner experience. It also has a physiological component and entails a behavioral expression. Emotions are quite strong, but they don’t generally last as long as moods. In addition, emotions are more likely to have identifiable causes (they are reactions to stimuli), and they are more likely to motivate a person to action. Moods are longer-term emotional states that are less intense than emotions and do not appear to have distinct beginnings or ends.

LO 13 List the major theories of emotion and describe how they differ. (p. 387)

The James–Lange theory of emotion suggests there is a stimulus that initiates the experience of a physiological reaction and/or a behavioral reaction, and it is this reaction that leads to an emotion. The Cannon–Bard theory of emotion suggests that we do not feel emotion as a result of physiological and behavioral reactions; instead, all these experiences occur simultaneously. The Schachter–Singer theory of emotion suggests there is a general pattern of physiological arousal caused by the sympathetic nervous system, and this pattern is common to a variety of emotions. The experience of emotion is the result of two factors: (1) physiological arousal and (2) a cognitive label for this physiological state (the arousal). The cognitive appraisal theory suggests that the appraisal or interpretation of interactions with surroundings causes an emotional reaction.

LO 14 Discuss evidence to support the idea that emotions are universal. (p. 391)

Darwin suggested that interpreting facial expressions is not something we learn, but rather an innate ability that evolved because it promotes survival. Sharing the same facial expressions allows for communication. In research with an isolated group of indigenous peoples in New Guinea, the results indicated that the same facial expressions represent the same basic emotions across cultures. In addition, the fact that children born deaf and blind have the same types of expressions of emotion (for example, happiness and anger) suggests the universal nature of these displays.

LO 15 Indicate how display rules influence the expression of emotion. (p. 392)

Although the expression of basic emotions appears, in many cases, to be universal, culture acts like a filter to determine the specific context in which to exhibit them. That is, the display rules of a culture provide the framework or guidelines for when, how, and where an emotion is expressed.

LO 16 Describe the role the amygdala plays in the experience of fear. (p. 394)

The amygdala is an almond-shaped structure found in the limbic system and appears to be central to our experience of fear. When people view threatening images, or even look at an image of a frightened face, the amygdala is activated. When confronted with a fear-provoking situation, the amygdala enables an ultrafast and unconscious response. The amygdala also plays an important role in the creation of emotional memories. This is useful because we are more likely to survive if we remember threats in our environments.

LO 17 Summarize evidence pointing to the biological basis of happiness. (p. 396)

Happiness has heritability estimates between 35% and 50%, and as high as 80% in longitudinal studies. There may be a set point for happiness, suggesting that we all have a degree of happiness around which our happiness levels will hover. As we consider our level of happiness and strive for personal happiness, we should keep in mind our set point, as it is strong, and directed by our genes and temperament.