SI-1

Abecedarian Project, 318–319, 319, 663

Abortion, spontaneous. See Miscarriages

ABSL. See Al-Sayyid Bedouin Sign Language

Abstract thinking, 138, 141–142

Abstraction, counting and, 291

Abuse. See Child maltreatment

Academic achievement

child care quality and, 499, 504, 505

cultural influences on employment and, 314, 314–315

early knowledge of numbers and, 154, 306

gender differences in, 619–625

IQ as predictor of, 306, 307, 307–308

media use of children and, 375

peer status as risk predictor with, 540–541, 541

peer support for, 623–624

poverty and, 19

secure attachment and, 438

See also Education

Accommodation, in Piaget’s cognitive development theory, 133

Accutane (isotretinoin), 60

Acetaminophen (Tylenol), 60

Achievement, ethnic identity, 452

Achievement motivation, Dweck’s theory of, 359–361

Actions, centrality of, 164–165

Activating influences, gender development and, 598

Active child, as developmental theme, 641–644

attachment and, 427

biology and behavior and, 86, 97–98

children contributing to own development in, 12–13, 643

cognitive development and, 131, 135–138

conceptual development and, 260

emotional development and, 385

friendship and, 98

gender development and, 595

individual differences shaped by, 21

infants and, 173

instrumental, operant conditioning and, 201–202

intelligence and, 299, 310

language development and, 12, 216

moral development and, 555

parenting styles and practices shaped by, 477

peer relationships and, 512

Piaget’s cognitive development theory and, 131

play and, 12–13, 98

prenatal development and, 40

questions about, 10

reactions from other people elicited by, 644

self-initiated activity, 642–643

self-regulation and, 643–644

sensorimotor stage of cognitive development and, 135–138

social development theories and, 341, 362

Active effects, of genotype, 310

Active isolates, 536

Activity level

gender differences in, 625

temperament dimension, 404, 405

See also Motor development

Addition

cognitive development and, 153

commutative law of, 333

counting-on strategy and, 34

infant’s understanding of, 290, 290–291

information-processing theories and, 153

memory and, 152

strategy choices for, 330

ADHD. See Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder

Adjustment problems, peer status and risk of, 541, 541–543, 542

Adolescence and adolescents

aggressive-antisocial children and, 581–582

alcohol abuse and, 521–523

antisocial and illegal behavior of, 554, 578–579

autonomy in, 471

birth rates among, 486–487, 488

brain development in, 113, 114

cliques and social networks in early, 526–528, 531

communication outlets of, 529–530, 530

conception of self development in, 443–446, 444

crowds in, 527–528

cyberbullying and, 529–530

depression in, 395–397

discrimination awareness and, 451

divorce impact on, 490, 492

drug abuse and, 521–523

egocentrism in, 443–444

Erikson’s psychosocial development theory and, 346–347

ethnic identity in, 451–453

family dynamics in, 471

formal operational stage and, 135, 141–142, 143

friendship in, 516, 518, 518, 524–525

gangs and, 528, 586, 586

gender development milestones in, 612, 614

gender differences in

appearance concerns, 460, 460, 618

depression, 396, 396

physical growth, 618–619

gender-typed behavior in, 612, 614

growth during, 16, 16, 119–120

height changes during, 119, 119–120

homelessness in, 481

identity formation in, 446–449

imaginary audience and, 444

incentive motivation and, 403

juvenile delinquency and, 581

multiple selves and, 443–446, 445

negative emotions increasing during, 394

obesity and, 123, 123–124

parent–child relationship during, 471

as parents, 64, 486–487

peer pressure and, 521–522, 586

planning improvements in, 400

play and rules of, 13

popularity in, 534–535

poverty and, 19

pregnancy and, 64, 486–487

problem solving improvements in, 400

puberty and, 453, 618

reading skills of, 323

romantic relationships and, 531–532

runaways in, 481

social media use of, 529–530, 530

stepparent challenges with, 495

temperament of, 581–582

violence with antisocial behavior in, 577–579, 579

Adoption studies

design of, 100

Romanian orphans, 6–7, 116, 427, 640

schizophrenia and, 11

Adoptive twin study, 100

Adrenarche, 619

Adult models of attachment, 432–433, 433

Affiliation, 594, 611

Affluence, developmental challenges with, 377–378

Affordances, in perceptual learning, 199–200

SI-2

Africa, research in

Beng people, life beginnings and, 41

emotional development and, 414

gender-role flexibility and, 613

motor development milestones and, 191

peer relationship experience in, 522–523

picture perception in, 183

speech perception in, 226

African Americans

aggression and self-protection with, 416

authoritarian parenting styles of, 475–476

in Carolina Abecedarian Project, 318–319, 319, 663

community-of-learners program and, 161

emotional development and, 416

face preferences of, 177

illegal drugs and, 63

infant mortality and, 75

IQ and

group differences with, 315

heritability of, 104

poverty intervention programs boosting, 317

LBW babies of, 76

obesity and, 123

parental warmth of, 476

peer relationship experience in, 522–523

positive ethnic identity and, 452

Project Head Start and, 318

self-esteem and, 462–463

SES of, 19, 19, 80

sickle-cell anemia and, 94

SIDS and, 61

stepparents and, 496

Age

aggression gender differences by, 628

to begin education, 8–9

body composition changing by, 120

brain damage and recovery by, 117–118, 118

continuity/discontinuity with physical growth by, 16, 16

cross-sectional design comparing, 32–34

display rules and, 421, 421

divorce and child’s, 491–492

of first marriage, 469, 485

friendship determination by, 515–517

genetic influence by, 102

information-processing theories and speed of processing with, 152, 152–153

intelligence changes by, 298, 309, 309

IQ comparisons by, 305, 313, 313

language development furthering with, 246

methylation and, 98

motor development milestones and, 162–163, 190, 190–191

older parents and, 488–489

peer-nominated aggression by, 579, 579

perceptual narrowing and, 185, 187–188

positive emotion by, 389

at pregnancy, 2–3, 64, 485–489, 488

prenatal development and, 64

qualitative differences by, 14

Romanian orphan adoption outcomes and, 6–7

romantic relationships by, 531

self-disclosure to friends and parents by, 518, 518

sexual minority youth recognition of sexual attraction by, 455, 455

sleep patterns by, 72

social judgment domain differentiation by, 564

social scaffolding quality and, 160

temperament and, 406

understanding emotional causes and dynamics by, 418–419

Aggression

African Americans and self-protection with, 416

characteristics of, 581–582

consistency in, 579–581

controversial children and, 539

cultural influences on, 573

definition of, 577

development of, 577–579

direct, 628

divorce and, 494

Fast Track intervention program for, 588–589, 589

friendship causing, 521

gender differences and, 578–579, 579, 628–633

by age, 628

biological influences on, 629

cognitive and motivational influences on, 629–630

cultural influences on, 632–633

media influences on, 631–632

parental and other adult influences on, 630

peer influences on, 631

genetics and, 583

genotype–environment interaction and, 96, 96–97

high self-esteem and, 458–459

hostile attributional bias and, 358, 372

indirect, 628

individual selection and, 521

instrumental, 578

neglected children and, 537

origins of, 582–587

biological factors, 583

peer influence and, 586–587

parental conflict and, 585

peer-nominated aggression by age, 579, 579

popular children and, 534–535

preschoolers and, 578

proactive, 582

reactive, 582

rejected children and, 535–536, 541–542

relational, 535, 578, 586

social cognition and, 582

socialization and, 521, 583–586

victimized children and, 542–543

Aggressive-antisocial children and adolescents, 581–582

Aggressive-rejected children, 535–536, 541–542

AIDS, 65

Ainsworth’s Strange Situation, 430, 430–433, 434

AIS. See Androgen insensitivity syndrome

Alaska (Inuit), sex selection of children, 44

Alcohol abuse

adolescents and, 521–523

FAE and, 62

FAS and, 62, 62

FASD and, 46, 62

friendship and, 521–523

genetics and, 522–523

prenatal development and, 46, 60, 62, 62–63

Alleles, 92–93

Al-Sayyid Bedouin Sign Language (ABSL), 249

Altruistic motives, 569

Ambivalent (insecure/resistant) attachment, 431

American Academy of Pediatrics, 504

American Public Health Association, 504

American Sign Language (ASL), 115, 218, 221, 227, 230

Amniotic fluid, 46, 52, 53, 55, 62, 67

Amniotic sac, 47, 48

Anal stage, in Freud’s psychosexual development theory, 344

Analogical reasoning, 158

Analytic abilities, successful intelligence and, 321

Ancient Greece, child development and, 7–9, 41–42

Androgen insensitivity syndrome (AIS), 599

Androgens, 598–599

Anemia, sickle-cell, 94

Anger

development of, 391–392, 392

emergence of, 386, 387

positive alternatives to, 4

recognition of, 418

strategies for managing, 3–4

“turtle technique” for management of, 4

Animals

children’s fascination with, 273–278

imaginary, 265–266, 266

See also Primates, as test subjects

A-not-B error, 136–137, 137, 165

Anti-bullying interventions, 589

Antisocial behavior, 577–590

adolescent illegal behavior and, 554, 578–579

CD and, 580

characteristics of, 581–582

consistency in, 579–581

SI-3

covert behavior and, 578

cultural influences and, 573

development of, 577–579

Fast Track intervention program for, 588–589, 589

gender differences in, 578–579, 579

genetics and, 587–589

as heritable, 103

ineffective discipline with, 584–585

juvenile delinquency and, 581

ODD and, 580

parental conflict and, 585

parental punitiveness with, 584–585

SES and, 585–586

social cognition and, 582

socialization of, 583–586, 587–589

temperament and, 581–582

violence in adolescent, 577–579, 579

See also Aggression

Apoptosis, 46, 47

Approval and/or stereotyped orientation, in prosocial behavior, 563

Arborization, of dendrites, 111–112

Arithmetic

conceptual understanding of, 333–334

counting and, 291, 291–292, 292, 331

numerical magnitude representations and, 332, 332–333, 333

strategies for learning, 330–331, 330–331

See also Mathematics

ASD. See Autism spectrum disorder

Asian Americans

coming out acceptance challenges with, 456–457

face preferences of, 177

self-esteem and, 463–464

See also Chinese Americans

ASL. See American Sign Language

Asperger syndrome, 95

Assertion, 594, 611

Assimilation

ingroup, 603

in Piaget’s cognitive development theory, 133

Association areas, of brain, 109

At-risk children

biological and environmental risks with, 2–3

divorce and, 489

intellectual development of, 315–317, 316

multiple-risk model for, 79–80, 80

research and children’s welfare implications for, 662–664

resilience and, 2–3, 80

See also Child maltreatment; Interventions, for at-risk children

Attachment, 425–465

active child theme and, 427

adult models of, 432–433, 433

Bowlby’s theory of, 426, 428–429

caregiver–child relationship and, 427–439

child care programs and, 501–502

cultural variations in, 434

definition of, 427

genetics and, 661

Harlow’s primate research and, 427–428

individual differences and, 427, 432–433, 436–437, 658

internal working model of, 429, 437

interventions for parental sensitivity and, 436

long-term effects of, 437–439

measurement of, 430–433

nature and nurture and, 427

parental sensitivity and, 435–437

parental status of, 432–433, 433

peer relationships with social competence and parental, 544–545

phases of, 429

sociocultural context and, 427

Strange Situation and, 430, 430–433, 434

theory, 428–430

types of

ambivalent, 431

disorganized/disoriented, 431–432, 435, 436

insecure, 431, 438

insecure/avoidant, 431, 437

insecure/resistant, 431

See also Secure attachment

Attachment theory, 428–430

Attachment-in-the-making, 429

Attention

effortful, 16–17

finger pointing and, 231

of infants and faces, 12, 175–177, 176, 177, 187

joint, 159, 159, 231

reinforcement and, 351

selective, information-processing theories, 151

Attention span, temperament dimension, 404, 405

Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), 589

definition of, 370

environmental factors of, 370

genetics and, 370

ODD and CD with, 580

parents contributing to, 370

polygenic inheritance of, 94

Ritalin and treatment of, 370–371

Attractiveness

bias with, 177

infant preferences with faces and, 177

parenting style influenced by, 477

peer status and, 533, 534

self-esteem and, 460

sexual, 453, 455, 455

Auditory development and preferences

infant perception and, 182, 184–185

labeling tones of voice and, 417

music perception and, 184–185

prenatal development and, 53–54, 55–56, 64

prenatal exposure to occupational hazards and, 64, 64

speech perception and, 224–228

timing and, 639

word segmentation and, 228–229

Auditory localization, 182

Australia, research in

father interactions with children in, 482–483

peer relationship expectations in, 523

spatial ability and, 286

Authoritarian parenting styles, 473, 473, 474

African Americans and, 475–476

SES and, 479

Authoritative parenting styles, 473, 473–474, 575

in China, 476

European Americans and, 476

SES and, 479

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD)

drawing and, 255, 255–256

false-belief problems and, 270

language development and, 251

regulator gene defects and, 95

theory of mind and, 270

Autobiographical memories, 160

Autonomous adults, parental attachment status, 432, 433

Autonomous morality, Piaget’s stage of, 557

Autonomy, Erikson’s psychosocial development theory, 346

Axons

growth of, 110–111

structure and function of, 106, 107

Babbling, 230, 230–231

Baby-sitting, gender-role flexibility and, 613

Balance scale study

information-processing theories and, 150

Piaget’s, 139, 139

Baldness, male-pattern, 94

Bali, United States childbirth practices compared to, 68–69

Bandura’s social cognitive theory, 352–354

Basic level, category hierarchies, 263, 264–265

Basic processes, in information-processing theories, 150, 150–151, 651

Basic trust, Erikson’s psychosocial development theory, 346

Battered children. See Child maltreatment

Behavior genetics

definition of, 99

environmental effects and, 104–105

family studies and, 99–102, 101

heritability analysis with, 102–104

research designs in, 99–102

Behavior modification, 351–352

Behavioral cycles, in prenatal development, 52

Behavioral inhibition, temperament and, 409

SI-4

Behaviorist theory, 10

classical conditioning, 201

conditioning and development process in, 349–350

instrumental, operant conditioning, 201, 201–202, 350–352

parent responsibility in, 350

Beliefs, theory of mind and, 267–271

Beng (Ivory Coast, Africa), prenatal development and, 41

Best friendship, reciprocated, 520–521

Bias

attractiveness and, 177

China’s one-child policy and gender, 468–469

gender schema theory and, 601–602

hostile attributional, 358, 372

ingroup, 603

in interviews, 26

shape, 239, 239

in valuing gender of offspring, 44

Bicultural identity, 453

Bidirectionality of parent–child interactions, 478, 478–479

Bilingualism, 222

Binet-Simon Intelligence Test, 298

Binocular disparity, 181

Bioecological model of social development (Bronfenbrenner), 17–18, 366–378

child maltreatment and, 369–372

children and media and, 372–376

cultural influences and, 368

current perspectives on, 378–379

environmental systems in, 366–369, 367

gender development and, 606–607

mesosystem in, 367, 368

microsystem in, 367, 367–368

SES development effects and, 376–378, 377

“A Biographical Sketch of an Infant” (Darwin), 9

Biology

acquisition of knowledge of, 277–278

informal theory of, 262–263

preschooler knowledge of living things and, 273–278

understanding processes of, 275–277

Biology and behavior, 85–127

active child and, 86, 97–98

continuity/discontinuity and, 86

genetic and environmental forces in, 88–99

individual differences and, 86, 102

mechanisms of developmental change and, 86, 648–649

nature and nurture and, 86, 87–105

understanding, 86

Biosocial theory, of gender development, 597

Birth. See Childbirth

Birth rates

adolescents and, 486–487, 488

gender differences in, 44, 44

outside marriage, 486, 488

Bisexual youth. See Sexual minority youth

Bitter tastes, food preferences, 122

Blindness, 115–116, 285

Bobo doll, 352–353, 353, 354

Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence (Gardner), 321

Body composition, age and, 120

Body image, 618

Bowlby’s attachment theory, 426, 428–429

Boys compared to girls. See Gender differences

Brain

adolescent development of, 113, 114

association areas of, 109

cerebral cortex of

depression and, 395

language development and, 220

lobes in, 108, 108–109

spatial reasoning in, 283

structure and function of, 108, 108–109

visual processing and, 173–174

cerebral lateralization and, 109

connectivity among regions of, 151

damage and recovery of, 117–118, 118

development of, 106–118

developmental processes of, 109–113

dyslexia studies with, 326

effortful attention and, 17

experience and, 114–117

experience-dependent processes, 116–117

experience-expectant processes, 115–116

FAS and, 62, 62

FASD and, 46, 62

fetal, 47, 47, 50, 56

gender development functioning of, 598–599

gender differences and structure of, 621

glial cells and, 107–108

gray matter of, 106

human sizes of, 364, 364

language development and, 219–221

mapping, 110–111

mechanisms of developmental change in, 648–649

memory control of, 148, 148

motor development and maturation of, 191

myelination and, 112, 151, 648

neural tube development and, 47, 47

neurogenesis and neuron development in, 109–112, 648

neuroimaging, 110–111, 111

neurons, 106–107, 107, 109–112, 204

plasticity of, 114–116, 118

primate sizes of, 364

REM sleep and activity of, 71

sensitive periods of, 116

structures of, 106–109

synapse elimination and, 113, 114

synaptic pruning and, 113, 649

synaptogenesis and, 112, 112–113, 648–649

Brainology program, 22

Brazil, research in, 565–566

Breast milk, 121

Breastfeeding, 121, 121

Breathing, fetal, 52

Brief transitions, in Piaget’s cognitive development theory, 134

Broad applicability, in Piaget’s cognitive development theory, 134

Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological model of social development. See Bioecological model of social development

Bullying, 529–530, 589

CAH. See Congenital adrenal hyperplasia

Cardinality, counting and, 291

Caregiver. See Parents and caregiving

Carolina Abecedarian Project, 318–319, 319, 663

Cataracts, in infants, 115

Categorical perception, 224–226, 225, 226

Category hierarchies, 263, 263–265

Causality

conceptual development and, 279–282

correlation in research and, 29–30

early causal reasoning, 279–281

empiricist views on, 279

gestures and, 334

imitation and, 280, 280

magical thinking and, 282

nativist views on, 279

object categorization and understanding of, 265–266, 266

preschoolers and, 281

triadic model of reciprocal causation, 603

CD. See Conduct disorder

Cell body, 106, 106

Cell differentiation, 45

Cell division, 45

Cell migration, 45, 648

Central developmental issues

cognitive development and

dynamic-systems theories, 165–166

information-processing theories, 147–153, 155

Piaget’s theory, 133–135

sociocultural theories, 158–160

social development

ecological theories of development on, 362

learning theories on, 349

psychoanalytic theories on, 342

social cognition theories on, 356–357

Centration, preoperational stage of cognitive development, 139–141, 288

Cephalocaudal development, 48, 120

Cerebral cortex

depression and, 395

language development and, 220

lobes in, 108, 108–109

spatial reasoning in, 283

structure and function of, 108, 108–109

visual processing and, 173–174

Cerebral hemispheres, 109, 220

SI-5

Cerebral lateralization, 109

Cesarean deliveries, 68

Change as theme. See Mechanisms of developmental change

Character, building, 8

Child care and child care programs

academic achievement and quality of, 499, 504, 505

adjustment and socialization in, 502–503

attachment and, 501–502

cognitive development and, 503–504

family characteristics impact on, 502

language development and, 503–504

maternal employment and, 498–504, 505

minimum standards for, 504

public policy issues with, 665

risks and benefits of, 500–501

SES and, 503

sociocultural context and, 18

staff characteristics in good, 505

United States families changes and trends in, 500, 500

Child custody, 493

Child development, introduction to, 1–37

designs for examining, 32–34, 35

ethical issues in research of, 35

historical foundations of, 7–10

human nature understanding as reason for learning about, 6–7

intelligence and study of, 21

methods for study of, 22–36

parents and caregiving as reason for learning about, 3–4

philosophers’ views of, 8–9

public policy issues as reason for learning about, 4–5

purpose of studying, 3–7

research benefits with, 21–22

research-based theories of, 10

themes in, 10, 10–22

active child as, 10, 12–13

continuity/discontinuity as, 10, 13, 13–16, 16

individual differences as, 10, 20–21

mechanisms of developmental change as, 10, 16–17

nature and nurture as, 10, 10–12

research and children’s welfare as, 10, 21–22

sociocultural context as, 10, 17–20, 19

variables in, 28

See also specific development themes

Child Development Project, 576, 665

Child labor, Industrial Revolution and, 9

Child maltreatment

bioecological model of social development and, 369–372

causes of, 369–371

consequences of, 372

development of, 369

genotype–environment interaction and, 96, 96–97

LBW babies and, 78

prevention programs for, 373

sexual minority youth and, 457

stepparents, Cinderella effect and, 365, 365

Child witnesses, public policy and, 4–5, 665–666

Childbirth

in Bali compared to United States, 68–69

complications and outcomes with, 2

cultural influences on practices of, 68–69, 69

drug use for delivery in, 67, 68

initiation of, 66–67

negative outcomes with, 74–81

training for, 68

Children

knowledge acquisition theories and, 8

in poverty, 19–20, 376–377, 377

raising, 3–4

shaping own development, 12–13

spanking, 3

See also specific topics

Child’s nature, views of

cognitive development

dynamic-systems theories on, 163–165

information-processing theories on, 146–147

Piaget’s theory on, 132–133

sociocultural theories on, 156–158

social development

ecological theories of development on, 362

learning theories on, 349

psychoanalytic theories on, 342

social cognition theories on, 356

China, research in

authoritative parenting style in, 476

children as product of culture and, 158

counting in, 291–292, 292

dyslexia and, 117

emotional development and, 414–415

IDS in, 223

motor development milestones and, 190–191

one-child policy in, 468–469

peer status and, 540

rapid modernization and health in, 63

separation anxiety and, 391

sex selection of children and, 44

Chinese Americans

discipline of, 654

emotional development of, 414

See also Asian Americans

Chromosomes, 42, 44, 89–90, 92–93, 94

Chronosystem, in bioecological model, 367, 368–369

Chutes and Ladders game, 154

Cigarette smoking, 60, 61

Cinderella effect, child maltreatment and, 365, 365

Circadian rhythms, 52

Classical conditioning, 201

Clear-cut attachment, 429

Cleft palate, 49

“Climber” animation test, 210, 210–211

Clinical interview, 25–26, 28

Cliques

in adolescence, 526–528

dynamics of, 527

in early adolescence, 526

negative influences of, 528, 531

Coaching, parents and, 546–548

Cocaine, 63

Cognitive development, 129–168

active child theme and, 131, 135–138

addition and, 153

central developmental issues and

dynamic-systems theories, 165–166

information-processing theories, 147–153, 155

Piaget’s theory, 133–135

sociocultural theories, 158–160

child care and, 503–504

child’s nature, views of

dynamic-systems theories and, 163–165

information-processing theories and, 146–147

Piaget’s theory and, 132–133

sociocultural theories and, 156–158

concrete operational stage of, 135, 141, 143

continuity/discontinuity in development and, 15

definition of, 15

empiricist views on, 206

formal operational stage of, 135, 141–142, 143

friendship and, 519

gender differences in, 619–625

of infants and toddlers, 205–211

future study of, 211

object knowledge, 206–207

physical knowledge, 207–208, 208

social knowledge, 208–211, 209, 210

support relations understood in, 207–208, 208

Kohlberg’s theory on gender development and, 600

main questions addressed by theories of, 131

malnutrition and, 124–125, 125

mechanisms of developmental change and, 144, 651–653

nativist views on, 205–206

perception and, 205–211

practical benefits of theories of, 130–131

preoperational stage of, 135, 138–141, 143

processing limitations in, 146

sensorimotor stage of, 135–138, 143

sociocultural context and, 654–655

See also Dynamic-systems theories; Information-processing theories; Piaget’s cognitive development theory; Sociocultural theories of cognitive development

SI-6

Cognitive flexibility, 149

Cognitive strategies, to control negative emotions, 400

Cognitive theories, of gender development, 599–606

Colic, 74

Collaboration, 594

Collaborative statements, 627, 627

Collective monologues, 244

College/university students

sexual identity and, 454

vocabulary of, 246

Color, infant perception of, 174–175, 264

Color blindness, 94

Columbine tragedy, 554

Coming out

consequences of, 456–458

cultural influences with acceptance of, 456–457

first recognition in, 454–455

identity acceptance and integration in, 456

process of, 454–456, 455

test and exploration period in, 456

Common movement, 179–180

The Common Sense Guide to Baby and Child Care (Spock), 350

Communication

adolescents’ outlets for, 529–530, 530

collaborative statements in, 627, 627

controlling statements in, 627, 627

conversational skills in, 244–246

early interactions in, 230–231

face-to-face, 529–530, 530

gender differences with, 626–628

gestures in, 230, 248–249, 333–334

intersubjectivity and, 159, 231

joint attention in, 159, 159, 231

obliging statements in, 627, 627

pragmatic development and, 245–246

primates and, 219, 219

SES and family, 479

turn-taking in, 230–231

of values, 574, 574

withdrawal acts in, 627, 627

See also Language development

Community-of-learners program, 161

Commutative law of addition, 333

Complex environments, 116–117

Comprehension

language, 217

reading, 325, 327

vocabulary, 231–232

Comprehension monitoring, for reading, 327

Concentration camp survivor study, of Freud, Anna, 510–511

Conception, 42–44, 45

Conception of self. See Self, conception of

Concepts, 260–261

Conceptual development, 259–295

active child theme and, 260

arithmetic and, 333–334

empiricist views on, 260–261, 266, 271, 277–279, 283, 289

mechanisms of developmental change and, 260

nativist views on, 260–261, 266, 269–270, 277, 279, 283, 288–289

nature and nurture and, 260–261

sociocultural context and, 260

theory of mind and, 267–271, 268

understanding who or what in, 261–278

knowledge of living things and, 273–278

knowledge of other people and oneself in, 266–272

object categorization and, 261–266

understanding why, where, when, and how many, 278–294

causality, 279–282

number, 288–293

space, 283–286, 292–293

time, 286–288, 292–293

Concrete operational stage of cognitive development (Piaget), 135, 141, 143

Conditioned response (CR), 201

Conditioned stimulus (CS), 201

Conditioning

behaviorist theory on development and, 349–350

classical, 201

instrumental, operant, 201–202, 202, 350–352

mechanisms of developmental change and, 649–650

Conduct disorder (CD), 580

Cones, retinal, 174–175

Conflict mitigation strategies, 629

Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH), 599

Connectionism, language development and, 252

Conscience, development of, 555, 566–568, 659–660

Conservation concept (Piaget), 139–141, 140

Consistently responsive caregiving, 435

Consonance, music perception and, 184–185

Constancy

ethnic, 450, 450

gender, 600, 608–609

Constructivist approach, 132

See also Piaget’s cognitive development theory

Content knowledge, 151–152, 652

Contingency relation, 201–202, 202

Continuity/discontinuity, as developmental theme

behaviors compared to underlying processes in, 646–647

biology and behavior and, 86

cognitive development and, 15

conception of self and, 647–648

emotional development and, 385

explained, 13, 13–16, 16

Freud’s psychosexual development theory and, 15

of individual differences, 645–646

infants and, 173

intelligence and, 299, 305

IQ and, 305

moral development and, 555, 561

peer relationships and, 512

physical growth by age and, 16, 16

in Piaget’s cognitive development theory, 15, 131, 133–135

prenatal development and, 40, 51–52

questions about, 10

social development theories and, 342, 349, 356, 362

stage theories of development and, 15, 133–135, 646–648

time and, 647

Continuous development, 13, 13–16, 16

Contrast sensitivity, 174–175

Control group, 31

Control Signals Poster (CSP), 538

Controlling statements, 627, 627

Controversial children, 533, 537, 539

Conventional moral reasoning, Kohlberg’s stage of, 559, 559–560

Convergence, pictorial cues, 181

Conversational skills, infant development of, 244–246

Cooperation, in peer relationships, 512, 514

Corpus callosum, 109

Correlation

causality and, 29–30

definition of, 29

of reading hours with reading-test scores, 29

Correlational designs, 28–32, 32

Cortisol, 403, 407

Cortisol reactivity, 407

Co-rumination, depression and, 396, 520, 614

Counting, 291, 291–292, 292, 331

Counting-on strategy, 34

Covert behavior, 578

CR. See Conditioned response

Crawling, 190, 194–197

Creative abilities, successful intelligence and, 322

“Crib speech,” 12

Critical period

definition of, 220

imprinting and, 363

for language development, 220–221, 221

Cross-ethnic friendships, 524

Cross-gender peers, 611

Cross-gender-typed behavior, 595, 598–599

Crossing over, DNA, 91

Cross-sectional designs, 32–33, 35

Cross-situational word learning, 239

SI-7

Crowds, in adolescence, 527–528

Crying, infant

caregiver response to, 72–73

colic condition and, 74

evolution and evolutionary perspective on, 72–73

LBW babies and, 78

newborn states of arousal and, 70, 70, 72–74

soothing for, 73–74, 399

Crystallized intelligence, 300

CS. See Conditioned stimulus

CSP. See Control Signals Poster

Cultural influences

on academic achievement and employment, 314, 314–315

on academic achievement and gender differences, 624–625

on aggression, 573

on aggression and gender differences, 632–633

antisocial behavior and, 573

attachment and, 434

bilingualism and, 222

bioecological model of social development and, 368

on childbirth practices, 68–69, 69

children as products of, 157–158

coming out acceptance and, 456–457

on discipline, 475–476

display rules and, 420–421, 421

emotional development and, 414–416

emotional expression control and, 415, 421, 654

of families on children, 470

of father interactions with children, 482–483

first words and, 233–234, 234

on friendship, 515, 522–523

gender development theories with

bioecological model of social development, 606–607

social role theory, 607

gender-role flexibility and, 613

IDS and, 223–224

language components and, 218

moral judgment and, 561

motor development and, 190–191

obesity and, 123

parental beliefs and behaviors and, 421, 475–476

parental gatekeeping and, 547

on parenting styles, 475–476

peer groups and negative, 528, 531

on peer relationships, 522–523

peer status similarities and differences across, 539–540

picture perception and, 183

prenatal development and, 41

prosocial behavior and, 562–563, 573

self-conscious emotions and, 393–394

self-esteem and, 463–464

on siblings relationships, 484

sleeping arrangements and, 18, 18–19

social judgment domains and, 565

soothing practices and, 73–74

on stepparents, 496

telegraphic speech and, 242

understanding causes of emotions and, 418

victimized children and, 542–543

on violence, 632

See also specific ethnic groups; specific groups; specific nations

Cultural tools, 156, 157

Custody, after divorce, 493

Cyberbullying, 529–530

Cyberspace, peer relationship experiences in, 529–530

Cystic fibrosis, 94

Cytomegalovirus, 65

Darwin’s theory of evolution, 9–10

Data gathering, contexts for

interviews, 25–26, 28

naturalistic observation, 26–27, 28

structured observation, 27–28, 28

Dating violence, 631

Deaf children, language development with, 230, 248–249, 251

Death

as developmental stage, 46

infant mortality and, 74–75, 75

Deconditioning, 350

Deferred imitation, 136, 137

Delay of gratification, 384

Dendrites

arborization and growth of, 111–112

spines on, 111–112, 116

structure and function of, 106, 107

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), 11–12, 89, 91

Dependent variable, 31

Depressed mothers, 30, 436

Depression

in adolescence, 395–397

cerebral cortex and, 395

development of, 395–397

drug treatment for, 397

family factors in, 396

gender differences in adolescent, 396, 396

heredity and, 395

homelessness and, 481

rumination/co-rumination and, 396, 520, 614

symptoms of, 395

Depth perception, 180–182, 181, 182

DES. See Diethylstilbestrol

Designs, for examining development, 32–34, 35

Desires, theory of mind and, 267–268

Determinism, reciprocal, 354, 355

Developmental processes, prenatal development, 45–47

Developmental psychology. See Child development, introduction to

Developmental resilience, 2–3, 80

Diethylstilbestrol (DES), 59

Differential (discrete) emotions theory, 386

Differential susceptibility, 409, 478

Differentiation

cellular, within embryo, 45

perceptual learning and, 199

Difficult babies, 404

Diffusion/foreclosure, ethnic identity, 451

Direct aggression, 628

Direct instructors, parents as, 472

Direction-of-causation problem, 29, 32

Disappearing reflex, 192

Discipline

of Chinese Americans, 654

conscience development and, 567–568

cultural influences on, 475–476

education goal of, 8

ineffective, 584–585

parental punitiveness and, 583–584

parenting styles and, 472–476, 575–576

philosophical history of, 8–9

stepparents and, 495

Discontinuous development, 13, 13–16, 16

See also Continuity/discontinuity, as developmental theme

Discrete (differential) emotions theory, 386

Discrimination awareness, ethnic identity and, 451

Disease, prenatal development and, 65

Disequilibrium, Piaget’s cognitive development theory and, 133–134

Dishabituation, 225

Dismissing adults, parental attachment status, 432, 433

Disorders, genetic transmission of, 94–95

Disorganized/disoriented attachment, 431–432, 435, 436

Display rules, 420–421, 421

Dissonance, music perception and, 184

Distraction, distress regulated with, 73, 399

Distress

development of, 390–391, 391

distraction to regulate, 73, 399

fearful, 404, 405

irritable, 404, 405

response to, 74

separation anxiety and, 391, 391, 420

Distributional properties, of speech, 228–229

Diversity, genetics and, 90–91

Division, cellular, 45

Divorce

adolescents dealing with, 490, 492

age of child at time of, 491–492

aggression and, 494

at-risk children and, 489

contact with noncustodial parents after, 492–493

SI-8

custody of child after, 493

emotional development influenced by, 490–491, 491

father interactions with children after, 492–493

as heritable, 103

long-standing behaviors increased with, 493

marital conflict as alternative to, 494

mothers interacting with children after, 493

parental conflict and, 490

potential impact of, 489

stress from, 490–491, 491

United States family changes and trends with, 486–488, 489–496

Dizygotic twins. See Fraternal twins

DNA. See Deoxyribonucleic acid

Dodge’s information-processing theory of social problem solving, 357–358

Domain-specific/domain-general language development, 250–251, 652–653

Dominant alleles, 92

Dominant genes, 92

Dominant–recessive pattern, 92–93

Dopamine, 437

Dose–response relation, teratogens and, 59

Doubt, Erikson’s psychosocial development theory, 346

Doulas, in birth experience, 68

Down syndrome, 94, 95, 251

Drawing, early, 254, 254–256, 255

DRD4 gene, 437, 588

Drug use/abuse

adolescents and, 521–523

childbirth and, 67, 68

cocaine and, 63

friendship and, 521–523

genetics and, 522–523

marijuana and, 63

nicotine, 60, 61

as prenatal hazard, 59–60, 63

thalidomide, 57–58, 91

See also Alcohol abuse

Dual representation, symbols and, 252, 253–254

Duchenne muscular dystrophy, 94

Dweck’s theory of self-attributions and achievement motivation, 359–361

Dynamic-systems theories, 144, 161–167

central developmental issues in, 165–166

centrality of action in, 164–165

child’s nature views of, 163–165

definition of, 161, 163

educational applications of, 166

main questions addressed by, 131

mechanisms of developmental change and, 166–167

memory and, 164–165

motivators of development in, 163–164

motor development and, 192

novelty preference and, 167

Piaget’s cognitive development theory compared to, 163–164

selection and, 166–167

self-organization and, 165–166

Dyslexia, 95, 117, 326, 326

Early Start Denver Model (ESDM), 270

Easy babies, 404

Eating

food preferences and regulation of, 122

healthy habits encouraged for, 124

obesity and, 122–124, 123

parent influence on, 122

See also Nutrition

Ecological theories of development, 362–379

bioecological model, 366–379

central developmental issues and, 362

current perspectives on, 378–379

ethology and, 362–363, 378

evolutionary perspective on, 363–366, 379

view of child’s nature, 362

Economic functions, of family, 470

Economic influences on development, family structure changes and, 485

See also Poverty; Socioeconomic status

Economic stress, parenting styles influenced by, 480, 480, 482

Education

age for beginning, 8–9

bilingualism and, 222

classroom as community of learners for, 161

continuity of IQ scores and, 305

discipline as goal of, 8

early-intervention programs for, 317–320

family value placed on, 312

information-processing theories applied to, 154

IQ as predictor of academic achievement in, 306, 307, 307–308

jigsaw approach for, 161

philosophical history of, 8–9

Piaget’s cognitive development theory applied to, 143

research and children’s welfare implications for, 662

SES influencing parenting styles with, 479

sociocultural theories of cognitive development applied to, 161

special curriculum, “turtle technique” for, 4

television watching and, 372

writing challenges in, 328–330

See also Academic achievement; Preschool and preschool-age children; School and school-age children

EEG. See Electroencephalographic recordings

Effect size, gender differences and, 615, 615, 616

Effortful attention, 16–17

Eggs, female human, 42–44, 43, 91

Ego, 343

Egocentrism

in adolescence, 443–444

egocentric spatial representations, 284

imaginary audience and, 444

personal fable and, 443–444

preoperational stage of cognitive development and, 138–139, 139

Electra complex, Freud’s psychosexual development theory, 345

Electroencephalographic recordings (EEG), 110, 110, 220, 406–407, 407

Embarrassment, development of, 392–393

Embryo

definition of, 45

early development of, 47–48

hand plate of, 46, 46

miscarriages and, 56

Embryonic stem cells, 45

Emotional development, 383–423

active child theme and, 385

in childhood, 385–398

depression, 395–397

differential (discrete) emotions theory, 386

functionalist approach to, 386

identifying emotions of others, 416–418

negative emotions, 3–4, 389–392, 394–395, 400, 412–414, 419

normal, 394–395

positive emotions, 388–389

self-conscious emotions, 392–394

theories on nature and emergence of, 386–387, 387

understanding causes and dynamics of emotion, 418–419

understanding real and false emotions, 419–421, 420, 421

coaching and, 548

continuity/discontinuity and, 385

cultural influences on, 414–416

divorce influence on, 490–491, 491

family and, 410–414

parental socialization of children in, 411–414

parent/child relationship quality in, 410–411

individual differences and, 385

nature and nurture and, 385

regulation of, 398–410

cognitive strategies to control negative emotion, 400

heredity and, 402–403

individual differences in, 402–410

selection of appropriate strategies for, 400–401

shift from caregiver to self-regulation, 399–400

social competence and adjustment, 401

sociocultural context and, 385

temperament and, 403–410

SI-9

Emotional expression

causes and dynamics of, 418–419

cultural influences on controlling, 415, 421, 654

display rules and, 420–421, 421

facial expression and, 418

IDS and, 223

of infants, 387–397

labeling, 417–418

memory triggering, 419

parental assistance in managing negative, 3–4

of parents, 411–412

parents discussing, 413–414

peer relationships sharing, 524–525

real compared to false, 419–421, 420, 421

speed of, 402

Emotional intelligence, 384–385

Emotional self-regulation, 398–401, 418

Emotional stress. See Stress

Emotions, 385

Empathy, 393, 569–570

Empiricist views

on cognitive development, 206

on conceptual development, 260–261

biological knowledge acquisition, 277–278

causality, 279

knowledge of people and self, 266

number, 289

space, 283

theory of mind, 271

of object perception, 178

Employment

cultural influences on academic achievement and, 314, 314–315

IQ scores predicting income and, 307, 307–308

maternal

child care and, 498–504, 505

effects of, 498–500, 500

gender differences in influence of, 499–500

infants influenced by, 498–500, 500

part-time, 500

prenatal occupational hazards and, 63–64, 64

preschool and school-age children influenced by, 499, 500

United States family changes and trends with, 498

Enactive experience, 603–604

Encoding, in information-processing theories, 150–151, 152

Entity theory, 359

Entity/helpless orientation, 359

Environment

ADHD factors in, 370

behavior genetics and, 104–105

bioecological model systems in, 366–369, 367

of childhood poverty, 376–377, 377

complex, 116–117

definition of, 88–89

epigenetics and, 98–99

genetics and heredity with

child’s environment–child’s genotype, 89, 98–99

child’s environment–child’s phenotype, 89, 93, 96–97

child’s genotype–child’s phenotype, 89, 91–93

child’s phenotype–child’s environment, 89, 97–98

parent’s genotype–child’s genotype, 89, 89–91

genotype interactions with, 93, 96, 96–97, 309–310

goodness of fit and, 409

heritability and, 87, 104–105

intelligence development and, 308–320

family influences on, 310–312, 311

genotype interactions with, 93, 96, 96–97, 309–310

school influence on, 312–313, 313

shared and nonshared family environments, 312

societal influence on, 313–320

IQ and, 305

language development and, 221, 223–224

negative emotions influenced by, 394–395

nonshared, 105, 312

obesity influences in, 123

parent contributing to child’s, 97, 661

physical growth variables with, 120

pollutants of, 63

poverty hazards of, 59

prenatal development hazards with, 56–64, 59, 117–118

risks and, 315–317, 316

SES and, 87–88

shared, 104–105, 312

spatial ability and external, 285–286

See also Nature and nurture, as developmental theme

Environmental risk scale, 316, 316

Epidurals, 67

Epigenesis, 42

Epigenetics, 11–12, 17, 98–99, 640–641

Equilibration, in Piaget’s cognitive development theory, 133–134

Erikson’s psychosocial development theory, 15

current perspectives on, 347–348

development process in, 345–347

identity formation in, 346–347, 446–447

Erogenous zones, 342

ERPs. See Event-related potentials

ESDM. See Early Start Denver Model

Essentialism, 276

Estrogen, 48

Ethical issues, in research, 35

Ethnic identity, 449–453

achievement, 452

in adolescence, 451–453

bicultural identity and, 453

in childhood, 450, 450–451

constancy, 450, 450

definition of, 450

diffusion/foreclosure, 451

discrimination awareness and, 451

feelings and preferences, 450, 450

high self-esteem and positive, 452

knowledge, 450, 450

role behavior, 450, 450

search/moratorium, 451–452

self-identification, 450, 450

See also Race

Ethnicity. See specific groups

Ethology, 362–363, 378

European Americans

authoritative parenting styles of, 476

emotional development of, 414

face preferences of, 177

independence promoted by, 158

infant mortality and, 75

IQ and

group differences with, 315

heritability of, 75, 104

negative peer group influence and, 528, 531

peer relationship experience in, 522–523

Project Head Start and, 318

self-esteem and, 462

separation anxiety and, 391

Event-related potentials (ERPs), 110, 111, 372

Evocative effects, of genotype, 310

Evolution and evolutionary perspective

basic concepts of, 363–364

crying and, 72–73

current perspectives on, 378

Darwin’s theory of, 9–10

ecological theories on development and, 363–366

on gender development, 596–597

genome and, 88

parental-investment theory and, 365

play and, 364–365

Evolutionary psychology theory, 596–597

Executive functions, memory and, 148, 148–149

Exercise, prenatal development and, 66

Exosystem, in bioecological model, 367, 368

Experience-dependent plasticity, 116

Experience-dependent processes, 116–117

Experience-expectant plasticity, 115–116

Experience-expectant processes, 115–116

Experimental control, 30–31, 32

Experimental designs, 30–32, 32

Experimental group, 31

The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals (Darwin), 386

SI-10

External validity, 24–25, 25

Eyewitness testimony, public policy for children giving, 4–5, 665–666

Faces

development of, 48–49, 49

infants attention and, 12, 187

attractiveness preference of, 177

preferences of, 176, 176–177, 177

visual scanning of, 175, 175, 176–177

racial preferences in recognition of, 177

Face-to-face communication, 529–530, 530

Facial expression

assessing regulation of, 420–421, 421

emotional expression and, 418

FAS causing deformities to, 62, 62

fetal, 50

FAE. See Fetal alcohol effects

Failure

conception, 43

resilience and, 21–22

to thrive, 120

Fallopian tube, 42, 43

False emotions, real emotions compared to, 419–421, 420, 421

False-belief problems, theory of mind and, 268–269, 270

Families, 467–507

adolescence and, 471

bidirectionality of parent–child interactions in, 478, 478–479

child care success and characteristics of, 502

coercion of, 584–585

cultural influences taught by, 470

depression factors with, 396

dynamics of, 470–472

economic function of, 470

education valued by, 312

emotional development and, 410–414

parental socialization of children in, 411–414

parent–child relationship quality in, 410–411

environment and intelligence development influences of, 310–312, 311

functions of, 470

homelessness and, 481

individual differences in members of, 20–21, 469, 477

IQ influence of, 100, 100

language development role of, 235

mothers’ and fathers’ interactions with children in, 482–485

nature and nurture and, 469

parental socialization, influence on, 472–482

poverty influencing, 480, 480–482

research and children’s welfare and, 470

SES and communication of, 479

shared and nonshared environments of, 104–105, 312

sibling relationships in, 483–485

single-parent, 19

social competence of children and stress of, 548, 548

sociocultural context and, 469, 475

United States changes in, 485–498

age of childbearing, 485–489, 488

age of first marriage, 469, 485

birth rates outside marriage, 486, 488

child care, 500, 500

divorce and, 486–488, 489–496

economic arrangements, 485

lesbian and gay parents, 496–497

maternal employment, 498

stepparents, 494–496

See also Parenting styles and practices; Parents and caregiving

Familism, 484

Family studies

behavior genetics and, 99–102, 101

intelligence and, 100, 100–102

HOME measure of, 310–312, 311

Fantasy play, 13, 282, 517

FAS. See Fetal alcohol syndrome

FASD. See Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder

Fast mapping, 236, 237

Fast Track intervention program, 588–589, 589

Fathers

feminine-stereotyped activities avoided by, 613

fetal hearing and voice of, 56

gay, 496–497

interactions with children of

cultural influences of, 482–483

after divorce, 492–493

mothers’ interactions compared to, 482–485

as noncustodial parent, 492–493

parental sensitivity and attachment of, 435

peer relationships influence of, 545–546

as stepparents compared to mothers, 495–496

See also Families; Mothers; Parents and caregiving

Fear, in children

development of, 390–391, 391

emergence of, 386, 387

individual differences and, 390–391

separation anxiety and, 391, 391

of strangers, 390

visual cliff and fear of heights, 196–197, 390, 391

Fearful distress, temperament dimension, 404, 405

Feelings and preferences, ethnic, 450, 450

Female reproductive system, 42–44, 43, 91

Feminine-stereotyped activities, gender-role flexibility and, 613

Fetal alcohol effects (FAE), 62

Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD), 46, 62

Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS), 62, 62

Fetal programming, 59

Fetus

behavior of, 51–52

brain development of, 47, 47, 50, 56

breathing of, 52

definition of, 45

development of, 47–48

face development of, 48–49, 49

facial expression of, 50

father’s voice heard by, 56

gender differences in vulnerability of, 44, 44

habituation of, 54, 54

headplates of, 67, 67

illustrated summary of, 48–51, 48–51

learning prior to birth of, 40, 46, 54–56, 57

memory of, 55

mother’s voice heard by, 54–55

movement of, 49–50, 51–52

sensory experience of, 52–54

sexual differentiation of, 49

speech recognition of, 54–55, 56

swallowing of, 52

sweet taste preference of, 53

See also Prenatal development

Finger pointing, attention and, 231

First recognition, in coming out, 454–455

First sentences, 242

First words, 231–242

cues for, 237–238, 238

cultural influences with, 233–234, 234

grammatical category of, 239

holophrastic period with, 234

intention and, 237–238

learning, 236–241

linguistic context and, 238–239, 239

overextension of, 234, 234–235

production of, 232–235

pronunciation challenges with, 232

recognition of, 231–232

reference problems with, 231

shape bias with, 239, 239

Fixation, in Freud’s psychosexual development theory, 345

Fluid intelligence, 299–300

Flynn effect, 313, 313–314

fMRI. See Functional magnetic resonance imaging

Food preferences and eating regulation, 122

“Forbidden” toys, 27

Foreclosure status, 447–448

Foreign-language speech perception, 227, 227

Formal operational stage of cognitive development (Piaget), 135, 141–142, 143

Formula-feeding, 121

Fovea, 174

Fragile-X syndrome, 94, 251

Fraternal twins (dizygotic), 47, 100, 100–102, 104

SI-11

Freud’s conscience development theory, 566–567

Freud’s psychosexual development theory

anal stage in, 344

basic features of, 342

continuity/discontinuity in developmental and, 15

current perspectives on, 347–348

developmental process in, 343–345

Electra complex in, 345

fixation in, 345

genital stage in, 345

latency period in, 345

Oedipus complex and, 344–345

oral stage in, 343

phallic stage in, 344

Friendship

active child theme in, 98

in adolescence, 516, 518, 518, 524–525

age and determination of, 515–517

age trends with self-disclosure and, 518, 518

aggression and disruptiveness from, 521

alcohol and drug abuse with, 521–523

buffering effect of, 518

children’s choice of, 523–525

cross-ethnic, 524

cultural influences on, 515, 522–523

definition of, 513

developmental changes in, 515, 515–517

functions of

gender differences in, 519–520

social competence and cognitive development skills, 519

support and validation, 517–518

imaginary companions and, 273

infants’ possibilities for, 513–514

intimacy and, 515, 519–520

loneliness eased with, 518

preschoolers’ interactions with friends and nonfriends, 514–515, 515

pretend play and, 514

psychological functioning and behavior effects of

possible costs, 521–523

possible long-term benefits, 520–521

reciprocated best, 520–521

school-age children evaluating, 515, 515–517

See also Peer relationships

Frontal lobe, 108, 109

Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), 110, 111, 117

Functionalist approach, to emotional development, 386

g. See General intelligence

Gametes (germ cells), 42

Gangs, 528, 586, 586

Gatekeeping, parents and, 546–548

Gay parents, 496–497

Gay youth. See Sexual minority youth

Gender, sex compared to, 595

Gender constancy, 600, 608–609

Gender development, 593–635

activating influences and, 598

active child theme and, 595

assertion and affiliation in, 594, 611

biological theories on

biosocial theory, 597

evolutionary approaches to, 596–597

neuroscience and, 598–599

brain functioning and, 598–599

cognitive and motivational influences on, 599–606

cognitive development theory, 600

gender schema theory, 600–602, 601

social cognition theories, 603–604, 606

social identity theory, 602–603

cultural influences theories on

bioecological model of social development, 606–607

social role theory, 607

gender identity and, 598–599, 600, 608

hormones and, 598

individual differences and, 595

milestones in, 607–614

adolescence, 612, 614

infants and toddlers, 608

middle childhood and school-age children, 610–612

preschool years, 608–610

nature and nurture and, 595

observational learning and, 604

organizing influences and, 598

sociocultural context and, 595

theoretical approaches to, 595–607

transgender youth and, 599

Gender differences, 614–633

in activity level, 625

in adolescence

appearance concerns, 460, 460, 618

depression, 396, 396

physical growth, 618–619

in age of first marriage, 485

with aggression, 578–579, 579, 628–633

by age, 628

biological influences on, 629

cognitive and motivational influences on, 629–630

cultural influences on, 632–633

media influences on, 631–632

parental and other adult influences on, 630

peer influences on, 631

in antisocial behavior, 578–579, 579

bias in parental valuing of offspring and, 44

in birth rates, 44, 44

body image and, 618

brain structure and, 621

China’s one-child policy bias with, 468–469

in cognitive abilities and academic achievement, 619–625

biological influences on, 621–622

cultural influences on, 624–625

general intelligence, 619

mathematical skills and, 334, 620–621

overall academic achievement, 619

parental influences on, 622–623

peer influences on, 623–624

spatial ability and, 620, 620

teacher influences on, 623

verbal skills, 620

with dating violence, 631

display rules and, 421, 421

effect size and, 615, 615, 616

evaluating, 614–615, 615, 616

fetal vulnerability and, 44, 44

in friendship choice and selection, 524

in friendship functions, 519–520

in gender-typed behavior, 611–612, 613

height and, 119, 120

in interpersonal goals and communication, 626–628

in maternal employment impact, 499–500

in mathematical anxiety, 334

in media representation, 605

moral judgment and, 561

older parents and, 488–489

in personality traits, 625–626

physical growth and, 119, 120

adolescence, 618–619

childhood and school-age children, 617–618

infants, 617

prenatal development, 617

play preferences and, 363

rejected children and, 548, 548

in risk taking, 625

self-regulation and, 625

with sexual harassment, 631

sexual identity and, 454

with stepparents, 495

weight and, 119, 120

Gender discrimination, 610

Gender dysphoria disorder, 598–599

Gender identity, 598–599, 600, 608

Gender schema filter, 602

Gender schema theory, 600–602, 601

Gender schemas, 601

Gender segregation, 609, 609–610

Gender stability, 600

Gender-essentialist statements, 604

Gender-role flexibility, 612, 613

Gender-role intensification, 612

Gender-typed behavior, 595

in adolescence, 612, 614

gender differences with, 611–612, 613

in middle childhood and school-age children, 611–612

preschool age children and, 609–610

Gender-typing, 595, 604

SI-12

Gene expression

developmental changes in, 91–92

dominance patterns in, 92–93

methylation and, 98

General intelligence (g), 299, 300–301, 301

Generativity, 217

Genes

anomalies, 94–95

definition of, 89

dominant, 92

environment and expression of, 17

human and non-human animals sharing traits in, 88

recessive, 92

regulator, 91, 95

Genetic and environmental forces, 88–99

child’s environment–child’s genotype, 89, 98–99

child’s environment–child’s phenotype, 89, 93, 96–97

child’s genotype–child’s phenotype, 89, 91–93

child’s phenotype–child’s environment, 89, 97–98

parent’s genotype–child’s genotype, 89, 89–91

Genetic susceptibility, 59

Genetics and heredity

ADHD and, 370

age and influence of, 102

aggression and, 583

alcohol abuse and, 522–523

antisocial behavior and, 587–589

attachment and, 661

conception failure and, 43

depression and, 395

disorders transmitted by, 94–95

diversity and, 90–91

drug abuse and, 522–523

dyslexia and, 326

effortful attention and, 17

emotional regulation and, 402–403

epigenetics and, 11–12

gene expression and, 91–93, 98

genetic transmission process, 89

genome and, 11

of humans, 89–90

individual differences and, 20, 90–91, 659

intelligence development and, 100, 100–104, 308–320, 309

methylation and, 12

mutation and, 90, 94–95

nature and nurture interaction of environment with

child’s environment–child’s genotype, 89, 98–99

child’s environment–child’s phenotype, 89, 93, 96–97

child’s genotype–child’s phenotype, 89, 91–93

child’s phenotype–child’s environment, 89, 97–98

parent’s genotype–child’s genotype, 89, 89–91

preschooler understanding of, 275–276

prosocial behavior contributions of, 572

random assortment and, 91

schizophrenia and, 11, 11

as self-esteem sources, 460, 460

sex determination in, 90, 90

teratogens and, 59

victimized children and, 542–543

Genie, imprisonment case, 220–221

Genital herpes, 65

Genital stage, in Freud’s psychosexual development theory, 345

Genome, 11, 88

Genotype

active effects of, 310

definition of, 88

environmental interactions and, 93, 96, 96–97, 309–310

evocative effects of, 310

nature and nurture interaction with

child’s environment–child’s genotype, 89, 98–99

child’s genotype–child’s phenotype, 89, 91–93

parent’s genotype–child’s genotype, 89, 89–91

passive effects of, 310

Germ cells (gametes), 42

Gestures, 230, 248–249, 333–334

See also American Sign Language

Gesture–speech mismatches, 333

Girls compared to boys. See Gender differences

Glial cells, 107–108

Goodness of fit, 409

Gossip, with peers, 519

Grammar

development and rules of, 243–244

gestures and, 248

parent’s role in child’s development of, 243

telegraphic speech and, 242

timing and development of, 639–640

Universal Grammar and, 248–249

Grasping reflex, 189, 189

Gratification, delay of, 384

Gray matter, brain, 106

Great Britain, research in, 6–7

Greece, child development and ancient, 7–9, 41–42

Growth curves, 119, 120

Guatemala, research in

infant sleeping arrangements of, 18–19

undernutrition and protein supplementation in, 125

Guided participation, sociocultural theories of cognitive development and, 155–156

Guilt

development of, 392–393

empathy and, 393

in Erikson’s psychosocial development theory, 346

recognition of, 418

shame compared to, 393

Habituation

definition of, 54

fetal, 54, 54

infant

learning and, 199, 199

speech perception and, 225–226

visual perception and, 174

mechanisms of developmental change and, 649

Half-siblings, 485

Hand plate, embryonic, 46, 46

Happiness, positive emotional development and, 388–389

Harlow’s primate research on attachment, 427–428

Hawaii (Kauai), nature and nurture longitudinal study, 2–3, 20

Head Start, 317–320, 503

Headplates, fetal, 67, 67

Healing, preschoolers understanding of, 276–277

Hearing. See Auditory development and preferences

Hedonistic, self-focused orientation, in prosocial behavior, 563

Height, as physical growth

adolescence and, 119, 119–120

age and continuity/discontinuity with, 16, 16

gender differences in, 119, 120

heritability and, 103

variability of, 120

Heights, fear of, 196–197

Helpless/entity orientation, 359

Hemispheres, cerebral, 109, 220

Hemophilia, 94

Heredity. See Genetics and heredity

Heritability

behavior genetics analysis of, 102–104

definition of, 102

environment and, 87, 104–105

estimates of, 103

IQ scores and, 103–104

nature of, 102–104

personality and, 105

schizophrenia and, 11, 11

See also Genetics and heredity

Heritable traits, 99

Herpes, 65

Heterozygous, 92, 94

Hidden objects

object permanence and, 131, 136, 144, 165, 206–207

SI-13

space relative to external environment and, 285–286

Hierarchical categorization, 263, 263–265

Hindi, speech perception and, 226–227

Hinduism, 565

Hiroshima bombings, 117–118

Hispanic Americans

familism and, 484

illegal drugs and, 63

IQ scores of, 315

obesity and, 123

parental gatekeeping and, 547

parental warmth of, 476

Project Head Start and, 318

self-esteem and, 462–463

SES of, 19, 19, 80

SIDS and, 61

See also Mexican Americans

Historical context, identity formation and, 449

HIV. See Human immunodeficiency virus

Holophrastic period, 234

HOME (Home Observation for Measurement of the Environment), 310–312, 311

Homelessness, parenting and, 481

Homosexual parents, 496–497

Homozygous, 92, 94

Hopi Indians, infant swaddling of, 73

Hormones

gender development and, 598

physical growth and, 120

prenatal development and, 47, 48, 59

Hostile attributional bias, 358, 372

5-HTTLPR gene, 588

Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), 65

Human nature, understanding of, 6–7

Huntington disease, 94

Hypotheses, 23–24, 25

Id, 343

Identical twins (monozygotic), 47, 98, 100, 100–102, 104

Identity

achievement, 446

adolescent formation of, 446–449

bicultural, 453

confusion, 446

crowds and, 527–528

Erikson’s psychosocial development theory, 346–347, 446–447

ethnic, 449–453

foreclosure, 447

gangs and, 528, 586, 586

gender, 598–599, 600, 608

historical context and formation of, 449

negative, 447

parental influences on formation of, 448–449

research on formation of, 447–448

sexual minority youth milestones with, 455

sexual orientation or, 453–458

social identity theory and, 602–603

sociocultural context and formation of, 449

status categories of, 447–448

See also Self, conception of

Identity acceptance, in coming out, 456

Identity integration, in coming out, 456

Identity-achievement status, 448

Identity-diffusion status, 447–448

IDS. See Infant-directed speech

IHDP. See Infant Health and Development Project

Illegal behavior, adolescents and, 554, 578–579

Illegal drugs, 63

See also Drug use/abuse

Illness, preschoolers understanding of, 276

Imaginary animals, 265–266, 266

Imaginary audience, egocentrism and, 444

Imaginary companions, 273

Imagination, of preschoolers, 282

Imitation, 136, 137, 202–204, 203, 209–211, 280, 280, 353–354, 604, 650

Immigrant children, victimization of, 542–543

Impossible/possible events, infant cognition studies and, 207, 207

Imprinting, 363

In vitro fertilization (IVF), 76

Incentive motivation, 403

Income, IQ scores predicting, 307, 307–308

Incremental theory, 360

Incremental/mastery orientation, 359

Independent variable, 31

India, research in

social judgment domains in, 565

speech perception and, 226–227

Indirect aggression, 628

Indirect socializers, parents as, 472

Individual differences, 656–660

active child shaping, 21

attachment and, 427, 432–433, 436–437, 658

biology and behavior and, 86, 102

breadth of, at given time, 657–658

as child development theme, 10, 20–21

at conception, by sex, 44

continuity/discontinuity of, 645–646

determinants of, 659–660

dyslexia and, 95, 117, 326, 326

emotional development and, 385

in emotional regulation of, 402–410

experiences reflected in, 659–660

factors of, 20–21

fear and, 390–391

gender development and, 595

genetics causing, 20, 90–91, 659

imaginary companions and, 273

intelligence and, 298–299, 656–657, 657

IQ and, 306, 657, 657

language development and, 216

moral development and, 555

parental attachment status and, 432–433, 433

parenting style and, 472–473

parents and families influencing, 20–21, 469, 477

peer relationships and, 511, 522–523

philosophical history of, 8–9

predicting future on other dimensions of, 658–659

prenatal development and, 40, 59

in prosocial behavior, 571–576

in reading acquisition, 328

self-esteem and, 459, 658

social development theories and, 341, 342, 356

stability over time and, 658

teenage pregnancy and, 64

temperament and, 403

Individual selection, aggression and, 521

Industrial Revolution, child labor in, 9

Industry, Erikson’s psychosocial development theory, 346

Infant Health and Development Project (IHDP), 79

Infant mortality, 74–75, 75

Infant-directed speech (IDS), 223–224

Infantile amnesia, 344

Infants and toddlers, 40–41

actions, learning from, 164–165

active child theme and, 173

addition understanding of, 290, 290–291

cognitive development of, 205–211

future study of, 211

object knowledge, 206–207

physical knowledge, 207–208, 208

social knowledge, 208–211, 209, 210

support relations understood in, 207–208, 208

color perception of, 174–175, 264

competence of, 144

conception of self and, 440–441

conscience development of, 567–568

consonance preference of, 184–185

continuity/discontinuity and, 173

crying and

caregiver response to, 72–73

colic condition and, 74

evolution and evolutionary perspective on, 72–73

LBW babies and, 78

as newborn state of arousal, 70, 70, 72–74

soothing for, 73–74, 399

cultural influences in sleeping arrangements of, 18, 18–19

developmental resilience and, 80

early causal reasoning of, 279–282

emotional expression of, 387–397

Erikson’s psychosocial development theory and, 346

expanding world of, 192–198

faces and attention of, 12, 187

attractiveness preference with, 177

preferences with, 176, 176–177, 177

visual scanning of, 175, 175, 176–177

SI-14

failure to thrive and, 120

feeding, 121, 121–122

friendship possibilities for, 513–514

gender development milestones with, 608

gender differences in physical growth with, 617

general magnitude representations of, 292–293, 293

habituation of

learning and, 199, 199

speech perception and, 225–226

visual, 174

IDS and, 223–224

infant mortality and, 74–75, 75

informal theories of, 262–263

intersubjectivity and, 159, 231

IQ testing and, 306

language acquisition of, 224–246

conversational skills in, 244–246

first words in, 231–242, 234

preparation for speech production in, 229–231

prerequisites for, 246

putting words together in, 242–244

speech perception in, 224–228

technology and, 240–241

word segmentation in, 228–229

LBW and, 60, 65, 76–79, 365–366

learning and, 172–173, 198–205

classical conditioning, 201

habituation, 199, 199

instrumental, operant conditioning, 201–202, 202, 350–352

observational learning and imitation, 136, 137, 202–204, 203, 209–211, 280, 280, 353–354, 604, 650

perceptual learning, 199–200

rational learning, 204–205, 650

during sleep, 71

statistical learning, 200–201, 650

living things distinguished from nonliving things by, 274, 274–275

massaging, 79, 79

maternal employment influence on, 498–500, 500

mathematics and, 290–291

mechanisms of developmental change and, 173

mother’s bond with, 12

as motivators of development, 163–164

motor development of

brain maturation and, 191

crawling and, 190, 194–197

cultural influences on, 190–191

current views on, 191, 195

dynamic-systems theories and, 192

mechanisms of developmental change and, 196–197

milestones in, 162–163, 190, 190–191

perception and, 189–198

prereaching movements, 193

problem solving and, 162

reaching and, 192–194, 194, 208, 209

reflexes and, 189, 189–190, 192, 201

scale errors and, 196–197, 198

self-locomotion and, 194–198, 284

multiple-risk model for, 79–80, 80

naïve psychology of, 266–267

name recognition of, 229

nature and nurture and, 173, 639

negative birth outcomes and, 74–81

negative emotions of, 389–392

newborns

learning during sleep and, 71

napping and, 71

quiet-alert state of, 70, 70

states of arousal, 70, 70–74

object categorization by, 263–264

object segregation and, 179, 179–180

parental attachment status with, 432–433,

433

pattern perception of, 175, 178, 201

peer groups of, 525

peer relationships of, 513–515

perception of

auditory, 182, 184–185

intermodal, 186–188, 200

overview of, 172–173

smell, 186

taste, 122, 186

touch, 186

visual, 173–182

Piaget’s insight into, 135–138, 144

picture perception and, 183

poverty and, 19, 80

premature, 76, 77, 78, 166

problem solving of, 280–281, 281

rapid change with, 172

reactions from other people elicited by,

644

response to distress of, 74

secure attachment and, 437–439

self-initiated activity of, 642–643

SIDS and, 60, 61, 195

sitting ability of, 193

sleep and, 70–72, 71

sleep–wake cycles of, 72

small for gestational age, 76

social integration of, 68

social referencing of, 197, 417

social smiles of, 388

sociocultural context and, 173

spatial representations of, 283–285

states of arousal with

crying, newborn, 70, 70, 72–74

sleep and, 70–72, 71

swaddling, 73

sweet taste preference of, 74, 122

taste of

feeding and, 122

for soothing, 74

television and play quality of, 31

temperament of, 403–405, 405

theory of mind and, 267–271, 268

time experience of, 287–288

touch soothing, 73–74

violation-of-expectancy procedure and, 205, 206–207

visual acuity of, 174, 174–175

vocalizations of, 229–231, 230

See also Low birth weight babies; Visual perception and vision

Inferiority, Erikson’s psychosocial development theory, 346

Informal theories, of infants, 262–263

Information-processing theories, 144, 145–155

addition and, 153

age and speed of processing, 152, 152–153

balance scale study with, 150

basic processes in, 150, 150–151, 651

central developmental issues in, 147–153, 155

child’s nature views of, 146–147

content knowledge and, 151–152, 652

definition of, 145

Dodge’s information-processing theory of social problem solving, 357–358

educational application of, 154

encoding in, 150–151, 152

main questions addressed by, 131

mechanisms of developmental change and, 131, 651–652

memory and, 147–152

memory strategies and, 151

nature and nurture in, 147

overlapping-waves theory and, 152, 152–153

problem solving and, 146–147, 152–153, 155, 357–358

selective attention and, 151

strategies for, 651–652

task analysis and, 146

Ingroup assimilation, 603

Ingroup bias, 603

Ingroup/outgroup gender schema, 601

Initiative, Erikson’s psychosocial development theory, 346

Inner cell mass, 47

Insecure attachment, 431, 438

Insecure/avoidant attachment, 431, 437

Insecure/resistant attachment, 431

Instant messaging, 529–530, 530

Instrumental aggression, 578

Instrumental and exchange orientation, Kohlberg’s stage of, 559

Instrumental conditioning (operant conditioning), 201–202, 202, 350–352

SI-15

Intelligence, 297–337

active child theme and, 299, 310

age-related changes in, 298, 309, 309

alternative perspectives on, 320–322

as basic abilities, 299–300

child development studies applied to, 21

continuity/discontinuity and, 299, 305

crystallized, 300

defining, 299–301

emotional, 384–385

entity theory of, 359

environment and development of, 308–320

family influences on, 310–312, 311

genotype interactions with, 93, 96, 96–97, 309–310

school influence on, 312–313, 313

shared and nonshared family environments, 312

societal influence on, 313–320

family studies of, 100, 100–102

HOME measure of, 310–312, 311

fluid, 299–300

gender differences in general, 619

general, 299, 300–301, 301

genetics and development of, 100, 100–104, 308–320, 309

incremental theory of, 360

individual differences and, 298–299, 656–657, 657

LBW babies outcomes with, 79

measuring, 301–306

mechanisms of developmental change and, 299

multiple intelligences theory of, 320–321, 321

nature and nurture and, 299

as numerous processes, 300

primary mental abilities and, 300

race, ethnicity and development of, 315

research and children’s welfare and, 299

risk factors in development of, 315–317, 316

Romanian orphan adoption outcomes and, 7

sensorimotor stage of cognitive development and, 135

as single trait, 299

societal influence on, 313–320

sociocultural context and, 299

testing, 298, 301–306

theory of successful, 321–322

three-stratum theory of, 300–301, 301

See also IQ

Intelligence quotient. See IQ

Intention

first words and, 237–238

observational learning, imitation and, 203, 203, 209–211

preschool-age children and, 237–238

Interest filter, 602

Intermittent reinforcement, 351

Intermodal perception, of infants, 186–188, 200

Internal validity, 24, 25

Internal working model of attachment, 429, 437

Internalization, superego and, 344

Internet, 373, 376, 529–530

Interneurons, 106

Interpersonal goals, gender differences and, 626–628

Interpersonal intelligence (Gardner), 321

Interposition, pictorial cues, 181

Interrater reliability, 24, 25

Intersubjectivity, 159, 231

Interventions, for at-risk children

anti-bullying, 589

child maltreatment prevention programs, 373

Fast Track program, 588–589, 589

parental sensitivity and attachment and, 436

programs for poor children, 317–320

prosocial behavior promoted by, 576

timing for, 662–663

Interviews, for data gathering, 25–26, 28

Intimacy, friendship and, 515, 519–520

Intrapersonal intelligence (Gardner), 321

Inuit (Alaska), sex selection of children by, 44

Invariant sequence, in Piaget’s cognitive development theory, 134

IQ (intelligence quotient)

academic achievement predictor of, 306, 307, 307–308

of African Americans

group differences with, 315

heritability of, 104

poverty intervention programs boosting, 317

age and comparisons of, 305, 313, 313

breastfeeding and, 121

continuity of, 305

definition of, 304

emotional intelligence and, 385

environment and, 305

of European Americans

group differences with, 315

heritability of, 75

family influence on, 100, 100

Flynn effect and, 313–314, 314

heritability and, 103–104

of Hispanic Americans, 315

HOME measure and, 310–312, 311

important outcomes predicted by, 307, 307–308

income and earnings predicted by, 307, 307–308

individual differences and, 306, 657, 657

mathematics disabilities and, 335

mean and, 304

of Native Americans, 315

normal distribution of, 304, 304

poverty and, 314, 314–315, 317

Project Head Start and, 318–319

risk factors related to, 315–317, 316

SES and, 103, 307, 307–308, 314, 314–315

stability shown in, 645

standard deviation and, 304–305

testing

Binet-Simon Intelligence Test, 298

infants and, 306

Stanford-Binet intelligence test, 302

WISC, 302, 303

See also Intelligence

Irritable distress, temperament dimension, 404, 405

Isolation, obesity causing, 124

Isotretinoin (Accutane), 60

IVF. See In vitro fertilization

Ivory Coast, Africa, 41

Japan, research in

academic achievement and employment in, 314, 314–315

attachment in, 434

emotional development and, 414–415

emotional expression in, 654

environmental influences on prenatal development in, 56–57, 117–118

labeling objects in, 234

peer relationship experience in, 522–523

prosocial behavior in, 573

self-conscious emotions and, 393

Jigsaw approach, for education, 161

Joint attention, 159, 159, 231

Joint custody, 493

Juvenile delinquency, 581

Karyotype, 90

Kauai, nature and nurture longitudinal study, 2–3, 20

Kenya, research studies in

father and mother interactions with children in, 483

motor development milestones and, 191

peer relationship experience in, 522–523

United States newborn sleep–wake cycles compared to, 72

Kismet (robot), 340–341, 348, 355, 361, 379

Kleinfelter syndrome, 94

Knowledge, ethnic, 450, 450

Kohlberg’s theories

of cognitive development, 600

of moral judgment, 15, 558–561

critique of, 560–561

dilemmas in, 558–559

stages in, 559, 559–560, 560

Korea, research in, 234

Labeling objects, 233–234, 241

Lake Michigan, 63

SI-16

Language development, 216–257

acquisition process of, 224–246

conversational skills in, 244–246

first words in, 231–242, 234

preparation for speech production in, 229–231

prerequisites for, 246

putting words together in, 242–244

speech perception in, 224–228

technology and, 240–241

word segmentation in, 228–229

active child theme and, 12, 216

age and furthered, 246

ASD and, 251

ASL and, 115, 218, 221, 227, 230

babbling and, 230, 230–231

bilingualism and, 222

brain and, 219–221

cerebral cortex and, 220

child care and, 503–504

components of, 217–218

comprehension and, 217

connectionism and, 252

critical period for, 220–221, 221

with deaf children, 230, 248–249, 251

debates ongoing in, 250–252

disorders in, 251

domain-specific and domain-general, 250–251, 652–653

environment and, 221, 223–224

family and school context’s role in, 235

fast mapping and, 236, 237

grammar and

parent’s role in child’s development of, 243

rules of, 243–244

telegraphic speech and, 242

IDS and, 223–224

individual differences and, 216

milestones in, 236

mutual exclusivity assumption in, 237

nativist views of Chomsky on, 247–249

nature and nurture and, 216, 250

nonlinguistic symbols and, 252–256

NSL and, 248–249

phonological development and, 217

pragmatic cues in, 237, 238

pragmatic development and, 218, 237, 238

prenatal development and, 56

reference problems in, 231

requirements for, 218–224

semantic development and, 217

SES and, 235

sociocultural context and, 216, 230–231

syntactic bootstrapping and, 239–241, 240

syntactic development and, 218

theoretical issues in, 246–252

See also Auditory development and preferences; Speech

Language disorders, 251

Language production, 217

Late talkers, 251

Latency period, in Freud’s psychosexual development theory, 345

Latinos. See Hispanic Americans

LBW babies. See Low birth weight babies

Learning

arithmetic strategies for, 330–331, 330–331

effortful attention and, 17

failure and, 21–22

fetal, 40, 46, 54–56, 57

first words, 236–241

general mechanisms of, 206

goals, 359

infants and, 172–173, 198–205

classical conditioning, 201

habituation, 199, 199

instrumental, operant conditioning, 201–202, 202, 350–352

observational learning and imitation, 136, 137, 202–204, 203, 209–211, 280, 280, 353–354, 604, 650

perceptual learning, 199–200

rational learning, 204–205, 650

during sleep, 71

statistical learning, 200–201, 650

linguistic context and, 238–239, 239

perceptual, 199–200

prenatal, 54–56, 55

as social, 353

specialized mechanisms of, 206

See also Cognitive development; Education; Preschool and preschool-age children; School and school-age children

Learning disabilities

ADHD, 94, 370–371, 580, 589

dyslexia, 95, 117, 326, 326

intervention timing for, 662–663

Learning theories, 348–356

central developmental issues and, 349

current perspectives on, 355

imitation, 136, 137, 202–204, 203, 209–211, 280, 280, 353–354, 604, 650

Skinner’s operant conditioning, 350–352

social learning theory, 352–355, 650–651

view of child’s nature, 349

Watson’s behaviorist theory, 349–350

Legal drugs, 59–60, 62–63

Lesbian parents, 496–497

Lesbian youth. See Sexual minority youth

Linguistic context, 238–239, 239

Linguistic intelligence (Gardner), 321

Living things, nonliving things distinguished from, 274, 274–275

Lobes, of cerebral cortex, 108, 108–109

Localization, auditory, 182

Logical-mathematical intelligence (Gardner), 321

Loneliness, friendship easing, 518

Longitudinal designs, 33, 35

Long-term memory, 148

Low birth weight babies (LBW babies), 365–366

African Americans and, 76

child maltreatment and, 78

cigarette smoking by mother and, 60

crying and, 78

definition of, 76

intelligence outcomes of, 79

intervention programs for, 77, 79

long-term outcomes of, 76–77, 77

malnutrition and, 65

parenting challenges with, 78

Macrosystem, in bioecological model, 367, 368

Magic, belief in, 282

Magnitude, infants representations of general, 292–293, 293

Male-pattern baldness, 94

Malnutrition

cognitive development and, 124–125, 125

LBW babies and, 65

measurement of, 23–24

poverty, SES and, 65, 124–125

prenatal development and, 64–65

Romanian adoption studies and, 6–7, 116, 427, 640

See also Nutrition

Maltreatment. See Child maltreatment

Manual babbling, 230, 230

MAOA gene, 97

Marijuana, 63

Marriage

age of first, 469, 485

birth rates outside, 486, 488

children born outside, 469

ongoing conflict in, 494

See also Divorce; Families

Masculine-stereotyped activities, gender-role flexibility and, 613

Massages, for infants, 79, 79

Mastery/incremental orientation, 359

Maternal emotional state, 65–66

Maternal employment. See Employment, maternal

Maternity leave, 664–665

Mathematical equality, 333

Mathematics

acquisition of skills for, 330–335

anxiety and, 334

arithmetic, 330–334

counting, 154, 291, 291–292, 292, 331

disabilities, 335

gender differences and, 620–621

infants and, 290–291

See also Addition

Mayans (Guatemala), infant sleeping arrangements of, 18–19

Mean IQ, 304

Measles, 3-day, 65

SI-17

Measurement, importance of appropriate, 23–25, 25

Mechanisms of developmental change

biology and behavior and, 86, 648–649

in brain, 648–649

cognitive development and, 144, 651–653

conceptual development and, 260

conditioning and, 649–650

domain-specific/domain-general language development and, 652–653

dynamic-systems theories and, 166–167

explained, 16–17

habituation and, 649

infants and, 173

information-processing theories and, 131, 651–652

intelligence and, 299

moral development and, 555

motor development and, 196–197

Piaget’s cognitive development theory and, 648

questions about, 10

rational learning, 650

social development theories and, 349

social learning and, 650–651

statistical learning and, 650

working together, 653

Media, influence on children, 372–376

academic achievement effects of, 375

aggression gender differences and, 631–632

exposure concerns with, 374–376

gender representation in, 605

increased usage and, 373–374

mobile screens and, 372–374

physical inactivity and, 375

pornography concerns and, 376

SES inequities and, 375–376

violence and, 374–375

See also Television watching

Medications. See Drug use/abuse

Meiosis, 42

Melody, music perception and, 185

Memory

addition and, 152

autobiographical, 160

brain control of, 148, 148

court testimony by children and, 5

development

basic processes of, 150, 150–151

content knowledge and, 151–152, 652

explanations of, 149–152

strategies of, 151

dynamic-systems theories and, 164–165

emotional expression triggered by, 419

executive functions and, 148, 148–149

fetal, 55

information-processing theories and, 147–152

long-term, 148

mathematics anxiety and, 334

music perception and, 184

rehearsal and, 151

temporal lobe and, 108

working, 147–148

Men Are from Mars, Women Are from Venus (Gray), 626

Menarche, 618

Mendelian inheritance, 92, 92

Mental model, 325

Mental operations, sensorimotor stage of cognitive development and, 135–138

Mercury, prenatal impact of, 57

Mesosystem, in bioecological model, 367, 368

Meta-analysis, 615

Metacognition, 652

Metacognitive knowledge, writing and, 329–330

Metalinguistic knowledge, 218

Methylation, 12, 98

Mexican Americans

familism and, 484

majority and traditional values conflicts with, 451

parental gatekeeping and, 547

peer pressure susceptibility of, 586

prosocial tendencies of, 573

See also Hispanic Americans

Microgenetic designs, 33–34, 35

Micronesia, research in, 224

Microsystem, Bioecological model, 367, 367–368

Midwives, 68

Migration, cellular, 45

Milk, breast, 121

Minamata disease, 57, 63

Minnesota Study of Twins Reared Apart, 101

Minority groups. See specific groups

Mirror neuron system, 204

Miscarriages, 56

Mistrust, Erikson’s psychosocial development theory, 346

Mitosis, 45

MMR vaccine, 95

Modularity hypothesis, 250

Monocular depth cues, 181–182, 182

Monozygotic twins. See Identical twins

Moral development, 553–591

active child theme and, 555

altruistic motives and, 569

antisocial behavior and, 103, 554, 573, 577–590

conscience development and, 555, 566–568, 659–660

continuity/discontinuity and, 555, 561

individual differences and, 555

mechanisms of developmental change and, 555

nature and nurture and, 555, 571–572

personal judgments and, 564–566

prosocial behavior in, 555, 562–563, 563, 568–577

research and children’s welfare and, 555

social conventional judgments and, 564–566

sociocultural context and, 555, 572–576

See also Antisocial behavior; Prosocial behavior

Moral judgment

cultural influences and, 561

definition of, 563–564

determining, 555

gender differences and, 561

Kohlberg’s theory on, 15, 558–561

critique of, 560–561

dilemmas in, 558–559

stages in, 559, 559–560, 560

Piaget’s theory of, 555–558

autonomous morality stage in, 557

evaluation of, 557–558

morality of constraint stage of, 556

transitional period in, 556–557

prosocial, 562–563, 563

social judgment domains, 563–566

The Moral Judgment of the Child (Piaget), 555

Moral relativism, 557

Morality of constraint, Piaget’s stage of, 556

Moratorium status, 447–448

Morning sickness, 57

Morphemes, 217

Mothers

breastfeeding and, 121, 121

depressed, 30, 436

failure to thrive babies and, 120

fetal hearing and voice of, 54–55

gender-typing and, 604

guided participation used by, 155–156

imprinting and, 363

infant’s bond with, 12

interactions with children of

after divorce, 493

father interactions compared to, 482–485

LBW babies and cigarette smoking of, 60

lesbian, 496–497

as noncustodial parents, 493

parental sensitivity and attachment of, 435–437

prenatal development factors with, 64–66

separation anxiety and, 391, 391, 429

single-parent families and, 19

as stepparents compared to fathers, 495–496

See also Childbirth; Families; Fathers; Parents and caregiving; Pregnancy

Motivation

achievement, 359–361

incentive, 403

Motivational theories, of gender development, 599–606

Motivators of development, 163–164

SI-18

Motor development

brain maturation and, 191

crawling and, 190, 194–197

cultural influences on, 190–191

current views on, 191, 195

dynamic-systems theories and, 192

mechanisms of developmental change and, 196–197

milestones in, 162–163, 190, 190–191

perception and, 188–198

prereaching movements and, 193

problem solving and, 162

reaching and, 192–194, 194, 208, 209

reflexes and, 189, 189–190, 192, 201

scale errors and, 196–197, 198

self-locomotion and, 194–198, 284

visual development and, 193

Motor neurons, 106

Movement

common, 179–180

of fetus, 49–50, 51–52

infant visual preference for, 175

object segregation in infant vision and, 179, 179–180

Multifactorial traits, 99

Multiple intelligences theory, 320–321, 321

Multiple sclerosis, 107–108

Multiple selves, of adolescents, 443–446, 445

Multiple-risk model, for infants, 79–80, 80

Multiplication, strategy choices for, 331, 331

Music perception, 184–185

Musical intelligence (Gardner), 321

Mutation, 90, 94–95

Mutual exclusivity assumption, in language development, 237

Mutual interpersonal expectations, relationships, and interpersonal conformity, Kohlberg’s stage of, 559

Myelin sheath, 107–108, 112

Myelination, 112, 151, 648

Nagasaki bombings, 117–118

Naïve psychology, infants, 266–267

Name recognition, of infants, 229

Napping, newborns and, 71

Narratives, scaffolding, 245

National Association of Young Children, 505

National Institute of Child Health and Development (NICHD), 501–504

Native Americans

infant swaddling techniques of, 73

IQ scores of, 315

negative peer group influence and, 528, 531

self-conscious emotions and, 393

sex selection of children by, 44

SIDS and, 61

speech perception and, 226–227

Nativist views

on cognitive development, 205–206

on conceptual development, 260–261

biological knowledge acquisition, 277

causality, 279

knowledge of people and self, 266

number, 288–289

space, 283

theory of mind, 269–270

of language development by Chomsky, 247–249

of object perception, 178–179

Natural selection. See Evolution and evolutionary perspective

Naturalistic intelligence (Gardner), 321

Naturalistic observation, 26–27, 28

Nature, defined, 10–11

Nature and nurture, as developmental theme, 11

attachment and, 427

bidirectional interaction of, 12

biology and behavior and, 86, 87–105

brain plasticity and, 115

child development shaped by, 10–12

complexity of, 641

conceptual development and, 260–261

emotional development and, 385

environment and heritability, 87–88

epigenetics and, 640–641

families and, 469

gender development and, 595

genetic and environmental forces in

child’s environment–child’s genotype, 89, 98–99

child’s environment–child’s phenotype, 89, 93, 96–97

child’s genotype–child’s phenotype, 89, 91–93

child’s phenotype–child’s environment, 89, 97–98

parent’s genotype–child’s genotype, 89, 89–91

Hawaii study on, 2–3, 20

heritability and, 102–104

infants and, 173, 639

information-processing theories and, 147

intelligence and, 299

language development and, 216, 250

moral development and, 555, 571–572

peer relationships and, 511–512

in Piaget’s cognitive development theory, 133

prenatal development and, 40, 638–639

questions about, 10

schizophrenia and, 11, 640

self-esteem and, 459

social development theories and, 341, 342, 362

temperament and, 403

timing as crucial in, 7

timing matters and, 439–440

Navajo Indians, infant swaddling of, 73

Near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS), 110–111

Needs-based orientation, in prosocial behavior, 563

Negative emotions

adolescence increase of, 394

anger and sadness development and, 391–392

cognitive strategies to control, 400

environmental influences on, 394–395

fear and distress development and, 390–391, 391

infant development of, 389–392

parent assistance for, 3–4

parental reaction to child’s, 412–413

positive emotions from same source as, 419

separation anxiety and, 391, 391

social competence and, 412

Negative identity, 447

Neglect, parental, 473, 473, 474–475

Neglected children, 533, 537

Neighborhood, as self-esteem source, 461

Nepal, research in, 415, 421

Netherlands, research in

crowd identification in, 527–528

World War II prenatal nutrition study in, 65

“Neural Darwinism,” 114

Neural tube, 47, 47

Neurofibromatosis, 94

Neurogenesis, 109–112, 648

Neuroimaging, 110–111, 111

See also specific types

Neurons

definition of, 106

development of, 109–112, 648

mirror, 204

structure and function of, 106–107, 107

Neurotransmitters, 17, 107

New York Longitudinal Study, 403–404

Newborns. See Infants and toddlers

Ngandu, emotional development, 414

Nicaraguan Sign Language (NSL), 248–249

NICHD. See National Institute of Child Health and Development

NIRS. See Near-infrared spectroscopy

Noncustodial parents, 492–493, 496

Nonhuman animals

human development and, 46

humans sharing gene traits with, 88

Nonlinguistic symbols, 252–256

Non-REM sleep, 70–71, 71

Norm of reaction, 93, 96

Normal distribution, of IQ scores, 304, 304

Nouns, in early vocabulary, 233

Novelty preference, dynamic-systems theories and, 167

NSL. See Nicaraguan Sign Language

Nthlakapmx, speech perception and, 226–227

Numbers

academic achievement and early knowledge of, 154, 306

conceptual development and, 288–293

SI-19

conservation of, 140

counting, 291, 291–292, 292, 331

empiricist views on, 289

infant’s addition understanding, 290, 290–291

nativist views on, 288–289

numerical equality and, 289

for play, 154

play with, 154, 306

space and time relations with, 292–293

See also Arithmetic; Mathematics

Numerical equality, 289

Numerical magnitude representations, 332, 332–333, 333

Nurture, defined, 11

See also Nature and nurture, as developmental theme

Nutrition

healthy eating habits and, 124

infant feeding and, 121, 121–122

obesity and, 122–124, 123

physical growth and behavior with, 121–125

prenatal development and, 64–65

undernutrition, 124–125, 125

See also Eating; Malnutrition

Obesity, 122–124, 123

Object knowledge, 206–207

Object substitution, 271

Objects

categorization of, 261–266

category hierarchies in, 263, 263–265

causality and, 265–266, 266

beyond infancy, 264–266

by infants, 263–264

infant visual perception of, 178–180

labeling, 233–234, 241

Piaget’s cognitive development theory and permanence of, 131, 136, 144, 165, 206–207

segregation of, 179, 179–180

space relative to external environment and hidden, 285–286

Obliging statements, 627, 627

Observation

naturalistic, 26–27, 28

structured, 27–28, 28

Observational learning, 136, 137, 353–354

gender development and, 604

infants and, 202–204, 203

intention and, 203, 203, 209–211

Occipital lobe, 108, 108

Occupation. See Employment

Occupational hazards, for prenatal development, 63–64, 64

ODD. See Oppositional defiant disorder

Oedipus complex, in Freud’s psychosexual development theory, 344–345

Offspring survival, parental-investment theory and, 365

Older parents, 488–489

One-child policy, in China, 468–469

One-one correspondence, counting and, 291

Only children, 468–469

Operant conditioning (instrumental conditioning), 201–202, 202, 350–352

Opportunity structure, 606

Oppositional defiant disorder (ODD), 580

Optical expansion, depth perception and, 180–181

Oral stage, in Freud’s psychosexual development theory, 343

Order irrelevance, counting and, 291

ORE. See Other race effect

Organizing influences, gender development and, 598

Orphan studies

Freud, Anna’s, concentration camp survivor study, 510–511

Romanian orphan adoption outcomes, 6–7, 116, 427, 640

of Spitz, 426

on World War II children, 426

Other race effect (ORE), 177

Outliers (Gladwell), 307

Overextension, of first words, 234, 234–235

Overlapping-waves theory, 152, 152–153

Overregularization, 243

Own-gender schema, 601

Papua New Guinea, research in, 224, 562

Paraguay, motor development milestones and, 190–191

Parental punitiveness, discipline and, 583–584

Parental sensitivity, attachment and, 435–437

Parental-investment theory, 365

Parenting styles and practices

active child shaping, 477

authoritarian, 473, 473, 474, 475–476, 479

authoritative, 473, 473–474, 476, 479, 575

child influencing, 475

attractiveness of, 477

temperaments and behaviors of, 477–479, 478

cultural influences on, 475–476

definition of, 472

differential susceptibility and, 478

discipline and, 472–476, 575–576

individual differences with, 472–473

permissive, 473, 473, 474

race and, 475–476

rejecting-neglecting, 473, 473, 474–475

SES influencing, 475–476, 479–482

economic stress and, 480, 480, 482

homelessness and, 481

warmth in, 473, 476, 575–576

Parents and caregiving

ADHD linked to, 370

adolescents as, 64, 486–487

adolescents’ relationship with, 471

age trends with self-disclosure and, 518, 518

aggression and conflict with, 585

aggression gender differences influence of,

630

attachment relationship of child and,

427–439

attachment status of, 432–433, 433

behaviorist theory responsibility placed on,

350

bias in valuing offspring by gender, 44

bidirectionality of parent–child interactions,

478, 478–479

biological knowledge acquisition aided by,

277

child development research for, 3–4

children’s negative emotions reaction of,

412–413

child’s environment contributions of, 97,

661

conception of self contributions from, 441

consistently responsive caregiving, 435

cultural influences on beliefs and behaviors

of, 421, 475–476

custody issues for, 493

as direct instructors, 472

divorce and conflict between, 490

eating influence of, 122

emotional development, relationship of child

and, 410–411

emotional expression of, 411–412

emotions discussed by, 413–414

feminine-stereotyped activities avoided by,

613

gender differences in academic achievement

and, 622–623

gender-typing and, 604

grammar development of child and role of,

243

guided participation used by, 155–156

identity formation influence of, 448–449

as indirect socializers, 472

individual differences influenced by, 20–21,

469, 477

infant crying and response of, 72–73

for LBW babies, 78

lesbian and gay parents, 496–497

mathematics anxiety and, 334

narrative scaffolding and, 245

naturalistic observation of negative behavior

and, 26–27

negative emotions assistance for, 3–4

noncustodial, 492–493, 496

older, 488–489

peer relationships role of, 544–549

attachment and social competence with, 544–545

family stress and children’s social competence, 548, 548

fathers’ influence on, 545–546

gatekeeping and coaching and, 546–548

SI-20

parental beliefs and, 546

quality of ongoing parent–child interactions and, 545–546

psychological control of children by, 474

research and children’s welfare implications for, 660–661

romantic relationships of adolescents modeled after, 532

secure attachment formed by, 661

as secure base, 428

sensitivity of, 435–437

sexual identity or orientation of, 496–497

siblings’ relationships influenced by relationship of, 485

as social managers, 472

socialization of

of children’s emotional responding, 411–414

family influence of, 472–482

of prosocial behavior, 572–576

styles and practices of, 472–482

structured observation and, 27–28

sympathy expressed as strategy for, 3–4

warmth from, 473, 476, 575–576

See also Discipline; Families; Fathers; Mothers

Parietal lobe, 108, 108–109

Passive effects, of genotype, 310

PATHS (Promoting Alternative Thinking Strategies), 538

Pattern perception, 175, 178, 201

PCBs. See Polychlorinated biphenyls

Peer pressure, 521–522, 586

Peer relationships, 509–551

active child theme and, 512

aggression influenced by, 586–587, 631

authenticity of, 461

bullying and, 529–530, 589

conception of self and, 443–446

continuity/discontinuity and, 512

cooperation in, 512, 514

cross-gender, 611

cultural influences on, 522–523

in Freud, Anna’s, concentration camp survivor study, 510–511

gender differences in academic achievement and, 623–624

gender-segregated, 609–610

gossip and, 519

in groups

cliques and social networks in adolescence, 526–528

cliques and social networks in middle childhood, 526

crowds and, 527–528

cultural negative influences on, 528, 531

gangs and, 528, 586, 586

status in, 532–544, 533

of young children, 525

individual differences and, 511, 522–523

infants and, 513–515

nature and nurture and, 511–512

parental role in, 544–549

attachment and social competence with, 544–545

family stress and children’s social competence, 548, 548

fathers’ influence on, 545–546

gatekeeping and coaching and, 546–548

parental beliefs and, 546

quality of ongoing parent–child interactions and, 545–546

peer, definition of, 512

peer-nominated aggression by age, 579, 579

pressure from, 521–522, 586

rejected children, fostering acceptance of peers, 538

research and children’s welfare and, 512

romance in, 531–532

secure attachment and, 437–438

as self-esteem sources, 460, 460–461

shared emotional expression in, 524–525

siblings divergent experiences and, 105

social media, cyberspace and, 529–530

sociocultural context and, 511

special nature of, 512–513

victimization and, 397

See also Friendship

Peer status, 532–544

attractiveness and, 533, 534

cross-cultural similarities and differences with, 539–540

relational aggression and, 535

as risk predictor

academic performance and, 540–541, 541

adjustment problems and, 541, 541–543, 542

paths to risk, 543

victimized children and, 542–543

sociometric measurement of

categories of, 533

characteristics of, 533, 533–539

controversial children, 533, 537, 539

neglected children, 533, 537

rejected children, 533, 535–537, 538, 541, 541–543, 542, 548, 548

stability of, 539

Pendulum problem (Piaget), 141, 141

Penis envy, 344

Perceived self-efficacy, 354–355

Perception

age and narrowing of, 185, 187–188

categorical, 224–226, 225, 226

cognition and, 205–211

definition of, 173

depth, 180–182, 181, 182

of infants

auditory, 182, 184–185

intermodal, 186–188, 200

overview of, 172–173

smell, 186

taste, 122, 186

touch, 186

visual, 173–182

learning and, 198–205

motor development and, 188–198

music, 184–185

object segregation and, 179, 179–180

of objects, 178–180

of patterns, 175, 178, 201

pictures and, 183

scale errors and, 196–197, 198

self-esteem test with self-, 459

speech, 224–228

subitizing and, 290–291

See also Visual perception and vision

Perceptual categorization, 264

Perceptual constancy, 178

Perceptual learning, 199–200

Performance goals, 359

Performance problems, of rejected children, 538

Permissive parenting style, 473, 473, 474

Personal fable, 443–444

Personal judgments, 564–566

Personality

gender differences in, 625–626

heritability and, 105

See also specific traits

Peru, infant swaddling in, 73

PET. See Positron emission tomography

Phallic stage, in Freud’s psychosexual development theory, 344

Phenotype

definition of, 88

environmental interactions

child’s environment–child’s phenotype, 89, 93, 96–97

child’s genotype–child’s phenotype, 89, 91–93

child’s phenotype–child’s environment, 89, 97–98

Phenylalanine, 96

Phenylketonuria (PKU), 93, 96

Philosophers’ views of child development, 8–9

Phonemes, 217, 225–226

Phonemic awareness, 322, 323–324

Phonological development, language and, 217

Phonological recoding skills, 322, 324

Phylogenetic continuity, 46, 47

Physical growth

continuity/discontinuity in development and, 16, 16

environment variables with, 120

gender differences and, 119, 120

adolescence, 618–619

childhood and school-age children, 617

infants, 617

prenatal development, 617

SI-21

growth and maturation, 119–125

growth curves, 119, 120

height

adolescence and, 119, 119–120

age and continuity/discontinuity with, 16, 16

gender differences in, 119, 120

heritability and, 103

variability of, 120

hormones and, 120

nutritional behavior and, 121–125

preschoolers understanding of, 276

secular trends and, 120

stress impairing, 120

undernutrition and, 124–125, 125

variability of, 120

weight

gender differences in, 119, 120

obesity and, 122–124, 123

variability of, 120

Physical inactivity, television and, 375

Physical knowledge, infant cognitive development and, 207–208, 208

Physics, informal theory of, 262

Piaget’s cognitive development theory, 132–145

accommodation in, 133

active child theme and, 131

assimilation in, 133

brief transitions in, 134

broad applicability in, 134

central development issues in, 133–135

centration and, 139–141, 288

child’s nature views of, 132–133

continuity/discontinuity and, 15, 131, 133–135

dynamic-systems theories compared to, 163–164

educational application of, 143

equilibration, disequilibrium in, 133–134

evaluating, 142, 144

infant spatial coding and, 284

intermodal perception of infants and, 186–187

invariant sequence in, 134

legacy of, 142, 144

main questions addressed by, 131

mechanisms of developmental change and, 648

nature and nurture in, 133

object permanence and, 131, 136, 144, 165, 206–207

practical benefits of, 130–131

qualitative change in, 134

sociocultural theories compared to, 155

stages of

concrete operations, 135, 141, 143

formal operations, 135, 141–142, 143

preoperational, 135, 138–141, 143

sensorimotor, 135–138, 143

Vygotsky’s theory compared to, 156–157

weakness in, 142, 144

Piaget’s moral judgment theory, 555

autonomous morality stage in, 557

evaluation of, 557–558

morality of constraint stage of, 556

transitional period in, 556–557

Pictorial cues, 181, 181

Picture perception, 183

PKU. See Phenylketonuria

Placenta, 47, 48

Planning

adolescence improvements in, 400

challenges with, 153

problem solving and, 153, 155

Plant life status, preschooler’s understanding of, 275

Plasticity, of brain, 114–116, 118

Play

active child theme in, 12–13, 98

adolescents and rules with, 13

definition of, 271

evolutionary perspective on, 364–365

fantasy, 13, 282, 517

“forbidden” toys and, 27

gender differences and, 363

gender segregation, 609, 609

numbers and board games for, 154, 306

obesity and lack of, 123

object substitution and, 271

pretend, 271–272, 514

puzzle, 284, 284–285

sociodramatic, 271–272

television and infants quality of, 31

Pleasure principle, 343

Pollutants, environmental, 63

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), 63

Polygenic inheritance, 93, 94

Popular children, 533, 534–535

Popularity

in adolescence, 534–535

longitudinal designs measuring, 33

popular children, 533, 534–535

Pornography concerns, 376

Positive affectivity, temperament dimension, 404, 405

Positive correlation, 29

Positive emotions, 388–389, 419

Positive ethnic identity, 452

Positive reinforcement, 201–202

Positron emission tomography (PET), 110

Possible/impossible events, infant cognition studies and, 207, 207

Postcoventional moral reasoning, Kohlberg’s stage of, 559, 559–560

Poverty

academic achievement and, 19

adolescence and, 19

children in, 19–20, 376–377, 377, 480, 480

as development hazard, 80

environmental hazards with, 59

families influenced by, 480, 480–482

health problems and, 19

homelessness and, 481

infants and, 19, 80

intelligence development influenced by, 314, 314–315

IQ and, 314, 314–315, 317

malnutrition and, 65, 124–125

overcoming, 20

programs for helping poor children and, 317–320

by race, 19, 19

resilience and, 80

single-parent families and, 19

stress and, 548, 586

See also Socioeconomic status

Power-assertive strategies, 629

Practical abilities, successful intelligence and, 321–322

Practices, sociocultural context and, 653–655

Pragmatic cues, in language development, 237, 238

Pragmatic development

communication and, 245–246

language and, 218, 237, 238

Preattachment, 429

Preconventional moral reasoning, Kohlberg’s stage of, 559, 559–560

Preferential-looking technique, 174

Preformationism concept, 42, 42

Pregnancy

adolescent, 64, 486–487

age at, 2–3, 64, 485–489, 488

ensuring healthy, 660

See also Childbirth; Fetus; Prenatal development

Premature infants, 76, 77, 78, 166, 365–366

See also Low birth weight babies

Prenatal development

active child theme and, 40

age and, 64

alcohol abuse and, 46, 60, 62, 62–63

auditory senses and, 53–54, 55–56, 64

behavioral cycles in, 52

Beng people and, 41

bilingualism and, 222

cigarette smoke and, 60, 61

conception and, 42–44, 45

continuity/discontinuity and, 40, 51–52

cultural influences and, 41

developmental processes and, 45–47

disease impact on, 65

drug use/abuse hazards with, 59–60, 63

early stage of, 47–48

environmental hazards in, 56–64, 59, 117–118

environmental pollutants and, 63

exercise and, 66

fetal behavior and, 51–52

SI-22

fetal learning and, 40, 46, 54–56, 57

fetal memory and, 55

fetal movement in, 49–50, 51–52

fetal sensory experience and, 52–54

fetal vulnerability, gender differences in, 44, 44

gender differences in physical growth during, 617

hazards during, 56–66

historical perspective on, 41–42

hormones and, 47, 48, 59

illegal drugs and, 63

illustrated summary of, 48–51, 48–51

individual differences and, 40, 59

language development and, 56

learning and, 54–56, 55

legal drugs and, 59–60, 62–63

maternal emotional state and, 65–66

maternal factors in, 64–66

mercury impact on, 57

miscarriages and, 56

movement and, 49–50, 51–52

music perception and, 184–185

nature and nurture interaction and, 40, 638–639

nutrition, malnutrition and, 64–65

occupational hazards to, 63–64, 64

periods of, 44, 45

research and children’s welfare in, 40–41

sensitive period in, 57–59, 58

smell and, 46, 53, 55

sociocultural context and, 40

taste and, 46, 53, 55

touch and, 53

visual perception and, 53, 71

Prenatal stress, 65–66

Preoccupied adults, parental attachment status, 432, 433

Preoperational stage of cognitive development (Piaget), 135, 138–141, 143

Prereaching movements, 193

Prereading skills, 323–324

Preschool and preschool-age children

aggression and, 578

categorization of, 264–266

causal reasoning and, 281

coaching of, 547–548

collective monologues of, 244

conception of self and, 441–443

conversational skills of, 244–246

delay of gratification and, 384

display rules and, 420–421, 421

drawing and, 254, 254–256, 255

emotional dynamics and causes understanding of, 418–419

encoding and, 150–151, 152

Erikson’s psychosocial development theory and, 346

essentialism and, 276

ethnic identity in, 450, 450–451

executive functions control of, 149

friends and nonfriends interaction of, 514–515, 515

friendship choice in, 523–524

gender development milestones with, 608–610

gender-typed behavior in, 609–610

growth understanding of, 276

healing understanding of, 276–277

heredity understanding of, 275–276

illness understanding of, 276

imaginary companions and, 273

imagination of, 282

intention and, 237–238

knowledge of living things and, 273–278

language disorders and, 251

magic belief of, 282

maternal employment influence on, 499, 500

peer groups of, 525

phonemic awareness of, 322, 323–324

plant life status understanding of, 275

prewriting skills in, 328, 328

Project Head Start and, 317–320

prosocial behavior and, 568–569

strategy variability for, 152, 152–153

symbols and dual representation with, 252, 253–254

theory of mind and, 267–271, 268

time reasoning and, 288

vicarious reinforcement and, 352–353, 353, 354

Pretend play, 271–272, 514

Prewriting skills, 328, 328

Pride, development of, 392–393

Primary mental abilities, 300

Primates, as test subjects

brain sizes of, 364

communication and, 219, 219

Harlow’s research on, 427–428

infant face perception with, 176–177, 177

mirror neuron system and, 204

myelination and, 112

Private speech, 157, 244

Proactive aggression, 582

Problem solving

adolescence improvements in, 400

information-processing theories and, 146–147, 152–153, 155, 357–358

microgenetic designs and, 34

motor development and, 162

planning and, 153, 155

toddlers and, 280–281, 281

Production, language, 217

Productive vocabulary, 232–235

Progesterone, 48

Project Head Start, 317–320, 503

Promoting Alternative Thinking Strategies (PATHS), 538

Prosocial behavior, 555

altruistic motives and, 569

cultural influences and, 562–563, 573

definition of, 562

development of, 569–571, 571

empathy and, 569–570

genetics contributing to, 572

individual differences in, 571–576

levels of, 562–563, 563

preschool children and, 568–569

school-based interventions promoting, 576

socialization of, 572–576

discipline and parenting style for, 575–576

modeling and communication of values for, 574, 574

opportunities for prosocial activities for, 574–575

sympathy and, 570, 571

Prosocial moral judgment, 562–563, 563

Prosocial motive, 420, 421

Prosody, 224

Proteins, 89

Pruning, synaptic, 113, 649

Psychic energy, 342

Psychoanalytic theories, 341–348

central developmental issues and, 342

current perspectives on, 347–348

Erikson’s psychosocial development theory, 345–348

Freud’s psychosexual development theory, 342–345, 347–348

view of child’s nature, 342

Psychoanalytic theory, 10

Psychological Care of Infant and Child (Watson), 350

Psychological control of children, by parents, 474

Psychology

evolutionary psychology theory, 596–597

friendship behavior effects and, 520–523

informal theory of, 262

naïve, 266–267

Psychopathology, 65

Psychosexual development theory. See Freud’s psychosexual development theory

Psychosocial development theory. See Erikson’s psychosocial development theory

Psychosocial moratorium, 447

Puberty, 453, 618

See also Adolescence and adolescents

Public policy issues

bilingual education and, 222

Carolina Abecedarian Project and, 318–319, 319, 663

child care program subsidies and, 665

child development knowledge informing, 4–5

child labor in Industrial Revolution and, 9

child witnesses and, 4–5, 665–666

China’s one-child policy and, 468–469

SI-23

intellectual development risks and, 315–316

maternity leave and, 664–665

Project Head Start and, 317–320

research and children’s welfare improving, 664–666

Punishment. See Discipline

Punishment and obedience orientation, Kohlberg’s stage of, 559

Punitiveness, parental, 583–584

Puzzle play, 284, 284–285

Qualitative change, in Piaget’s cognitive development theory, 134

Quiet-alert state, of newborns, 70, 70

Race

discrimination awareness and, 451

face preference and, 177

in friendship choice and selection, 524

intelligence development and, 315

parenting styles and, 475–476

poverty by, 19, 19

self-esteem in minority children, 462–463

See also specific groups

Raising children, 3–4

Random assignment, in experimental design, 30, 32

Random assortment, 91

Rapid eye movement sleep (REM sleep), 50, 52, 70–71, 71

Rational learning, 204–205, 650

Rats, as research subjects

in complex environment, 116–117

phylogenetic continuity and, 46

Reaching, 192–194, 194, 208, 209

Reactive aggression, 582

Reading

acquisition of skills for, 322–328

comprehension in, 325, 327

dyslexia in, 326, 326

individual differences in, 328

prereading, 323–324

stages of, 322–323

word identification in, 324–325

adolescent skills in, 323

comprehension monitoring for, 327

correlation of reading-test scores with hours of, 29

dyslexia and, 95, 117, 326, 326

strategy-choice process in, 324–325, 325

Real emotions, false emotions compared to, 419–421, 420, 421

Reality principle, 343

Recessive alleles, 92

Recessive genes, 92

Reciprocal determinism, 354, 355

Reciprocal relationships, 429

Reciprocated best friendship, 520–521

Reference, language development problems with, 231

Reflexes

definition of, 189

disappearing, 192

motor development in infants and, 189, 189–190, 192, 201

sensorimotor stage of cognitive development and, 136

types of, 189, 189, 192, 201

Regulator genes, 91, 95

Rehearsal, memory and, 151

Reinforcement

attention and, 351

imitation and, 353

positive, 201–202

vicarious, 352–353, 353, 354

Rejected children, 533, 535–537

adjustment problem risks of, 541, 541–543, 542

aggressive, 535–536, 541–542

gender and SES creating, 548, 548

peer acceptance fostered for, 538

performance problems of, 538

self-evaluation lacking in, 538

social competence and, 537

social knowledge lacking in, 538

social skills training for, 538

withdrawn, 536–537, 542

Rejecting-neglecting parenting style, 473, 473, 474–475

Relational aggression, 535, 578, 586

Relationship authenticity, 461

Relative size, pictorial cues, 181

Reliability, 24, 25

REM sleep. See Rapid eye movement sleep

Remarriage. See Stepparents

Repression, 344

Reproduction, sexual, 41–44, 91

Research and children’s welfare, as developmental theme, 10, 21–22

at-risk children implications of, 662–664

education implications with, 662

families and, 470

intelligence and, 299

moral development and, 555

parenting implications of, 660–661

peer relationships and, 512

prenatal development and, 40–41

public policy improvements with, 664–666

social development theories and, 349

Research and research methods, 22–36

benefits of child development study and, 21–22

causation and, 29–30

child development theories based on, 10

data gathering and

interviews for, 25–26, 28

naturalistic observation for, 26–27, 28

structured observation for, 27–28, 28

design for

behavior genetics and, 99–102

correlational, 28–32, 32