I-1

A ring (Saturn), 180, 181, 182

Abell, George O., 340

Abell 39 (nebula), 271

Abell 2029 (galaxy cluster), 340

absolute magnitude, 232

absolute zero, 39, 368

absorption

of photons, 45–46

absorption line spectra, 46–47, 235, 237, 239–240

acceleration, 77–78

accretion

of protoplanets, 103

see also circumstellar accretion disk; core accretion model

accretion disk

black hole, 293

active galactic nuclei (AGNs), 348–351

active galaxies, 348

actuators, 55

adaptive optics, 55

Adrastea (moon), 182

AGB stars, see asymptotic giant branch stars

air resistance, 81

Aldebaran, 243, 246

Alexandria, Egypt, 64, 65

Alexandrian school of astronomy, 64

Algol, 240, 296

ALH 84001 (meteorite), 196–197

alien civilizations

radio searches for, 200–201

Allen Telescope Array, 200–201

Alpha (α) Centauri, 232, 233, A-6

alpha particles, 265

Amazon rain forest, 133

ammonia ice, 94

Anasazi culture, 286

ancient astronomy, 64–69

eclipse warnings, 26

Andes, 127

Andromeda constellation, 9, 10

Andromeda Galaxy (M31), 51, 328, 331, 337, 364–365

age of, 351

black hole in, 350–351

predicted collision with Milky Way, 342

angles

and measuring distance, 12

angstrom (Å), 38

angular diameter, 12

angular distance, 12

angular momentum, conservation of, 101

angular resolution, 54–55

annular solar eclipses, 25–26

Antarctic Circle, 16

Antarctic ice shelf, 135

Antarctica

Mars meteorite at, 196

ozone hole over, 134

Antares, 97, 243, 282

Antennae (galaxies), 343

antineutrinos, 372, 373

aphelion, 75

apparent brightness, 232–233

apparent magnitude scale, 231–232

apparent magnitudes, 231–232

apparent motion

of planets, 69

of stars, 13

Aquila (the Eagle), 8

Ara (the Altar), 251

arcminutes (arcmin), 12

arcseconds (arcsec), 12

Arctic Circle, 16

global warming, 135

Arctic Ocean

ice rafting, 163

Arcturus, 7, 243

Ares Valles (Mars), 160

argon

on Earth, 118

on Jupiter, 173

Aristarchus of Samos, 64–65, 69

armless spirals, see lenticular galaxies

Arnett, W. David, 318

asterisms, 5

asteroid belt, 95

asteroids, 6, 95–96

moons of, 91

asthenosphere, 124, 127, 129

Astronomical Almanac, 25

astronomical distances, 66

astronomical unit (AU), 65, 66

astronomy, 2

asymptotic giant-branch (AGB) stars, 268–269, 270

atmosphere (atm), 119

atmospheric pressure, 119

Auriga (the Charioteer), 8

aurorae, 129, 131–132, 223

autumn, 16

average mass density

of matter and radiation, 377

B ring (Saturn), 180, 182

B stars, see O and B stars

Baade, Walter, 346

Babcock, Horace, 219

Balch, Emily Greene, 149

Barnard 86, 254

Barnard’s Star, 230, A-6

barred spiral (SB) galaxies, 331, 332, 334

Bell, Jocelyn, 287

Bellatrix, 7

belts and zones

on Jupiter, 168, 169, 171, 173

on Neptune, 176

on Saturn, 168, 169

beryllium, 97, 266

Bessel, Friedrich Wilhelm, 230

BETA (Billion-channel Extra Terrestrial Assay), 200

Beta (β) Lyrae, 296

Betelgeuse, 7, 228, 234, 239, 243, 282

Big Bang, 97, 360, 365–367

Big Dipper, 7–8, 12, 240

binary star systems (binaries)

and black holes, 290–292, 293

and Kepler’s third law, 240

and novae, 295–296

and stellar masses, 240–242

biosphere, 132

black holes, 5, 6, 280

and active galactic nuclei, 350–351

folklore, 291

formation of, 288–289, 292

nonrotating, 290

spacetime and, 289, 290

strength of gravity in, 290

see also supermassive black holes

blackbodies, 41–42

Stefan-Boltzmann law for, 43

blackbody curves, 41–42

cosmic microwave background, 368

blackbody radiation, laws of, 44–45

blue light, 48

blue stars, 227, 228, 234–235

spiral galaxies, 331

Bohr, Niels, 45

BOOMERANG experiment, 371, 375

Boötes (the Shepherd), 7

Brahe, Tycho, 74

brightness variations

active galactic nuclei and quasars, 348–349

see also apparent brightness

brown dwarfs, 237, 238, 244, 272

brown ovals, 171

Bunsen, Robert, 47, 49

C (crepe) ring (Saturn), 180, 182

Callisto (Jupiter moon), 92, A-10

Canada-France-Hawaii Telescope, 58

Canis Major (the Large Dog), 8

Canis Major Dwarf, 337, 338, 342

Canis Minor (the Small Dog), 8

Cannon, Annie Jump, 235

carbon

and life-forms, 190

in stars, 262, 266

in universe, 97

carbon cycle

on Earth, 119

carbon dioxide

on Earth, 118, 155

and global warming, 134–135

and life, 199

on Mars, 157

carbon dioxide ice, 94

on Mars, 159

carbon fusion, 280, 281

white dwarfs, 294

I-2

carbon monoxide

and life-forms, 190–191

carbonates, 118, 197

Cascades, 127

Cassini, Gian Domenico, 169, 171, 180

Cassini division, 180, 181, 182

Cassini mission, 178

Cassini spacecraft, 169, 171

Cassiopeia A (supernova remnant), 257, 346

Cassiopeia constellation, 346

celestial equator, 13, 15

celestial sphere, 10–13, 66–67

mapping, 57

motions of, 11–13

Sun’s movement on, 14, 15

Celsius, Anders, 39

Celsius temperature scale, 39

center of mass, 241–242

central bulge, 306, 307, 308, 311

of barred spirals, 332

of lenticular galaxies, 333

of spiral galaxies, 331

Cepheid variable stars, 304–305

and distance determinations, 329, 330

period-luminosity relations, 329

as standard candles, 335, 361

Ceraunius Tholus (Mars volcano), 147

Ceres, 95

Chandra X-ray Observatory, 56, 292, 321, 351

Chandrasekhar, Subrahmanyan, 272

Chandrasekhar limit, 272, 273

charge-coupled devices (CCDs), 57–58

Chassigny (meteorite), 196

chemical differentiation, 103, 123

chemicals

spectral lines of, 49

Chinese astronomers, 217

chlorofluorocarbons, 133

chocolate chip cake analogy, 361, 364

chromosphere, 214–215

CHXR 73 B (brown dwarf), 238

circumpolar stars, 11, 12

circumstellar accretion disk, 256

Clark, Alvan, 272

climate variation, 132–133

closed universe, 374, 375

clouds

of Jupiter, 171, 172

of Neptune, 175, 176

of Saturn, 172

of Venus, 88, 157

clusters (of galaxies), 6, 337–340

dark matter in, 346

see also globular clusters

clusters (of stars)

and dark nebulae, 258–259

COBE, see Cosmic Background Explorer

Coma Berenices (Berenice’s Hair), 338

Coma cluster (of galaxies), 338, 344

Comet Hale-Bopp, 97

comet tails, 97

comets, 6, 96–97

crash into Jupiter, 143–144

and life-forms, 191

orbits of, 75

Compton Gamma-Ray Observatory, 56, 57

condensation temperature, 102

conduction, 210

conservation of angular momentum, 101

constellations, 7–8

continental drift, 126

continuous spectrum, 46, 47–49

of stars, 235

convection, 120, 210, 211

and plate motion, 127

in red dwarfs, 261

of supergranules, 213

convective zone, 211, 212, 220

Copernican model of orbit shapes, 71

Copernicus, Nicolaus, 70–72

core accretion model, 104

core bounce, 281, 282

core collapse, 281

core-collapse supernovae, 282–283, 286, 295

core fusion, 282

core hydrogen fusion, 264

corona, 214, 215–216, 221

Corona Australis (the Southern Crown), 254

coronal holes, 216

coronal mass ejections, 221–222

Corvus (the Crow), 343

Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE), 306, 368, 370, 371

cosmic background radiation, see cosmic microwave background

cosmic dust, 102

cosmic light horizon, 367

cosmic microwave background, 200, 368, 369, 370, 375

cosmological expansion, 376

cosmological principle, 365

cosmological redshift, 364–365

cosmology, 360, 365

Crab Nebula, 279

Crab pulsar, 287

cratering

and geologic activity, 144–145

craters

on Mars, 143, 146

on Moon, 143, 144, 145

in solar system, 88

on Venus, 146, 149

see also impact craters

Crux (the Southern Cross), 7

Curiosity rover, 160, 161, 195–196

Curtis, Heber D., 329

Cygnus (the Swan), 8, 9, 10, 57, 346

Cygnus A (3C 405), 346, 347

Cygnus X-1, 292

dark energy, 375, 377–378

dark-energy–dominated universe, 378

dark matter, 302, 312, 314–315, 328, 344, 345–346

dark-matter halos, 344

dark-matter problem, 344

dark nebulae, 253, 254, 255, 314

and star formation, 258, 259

dark side of the Moon, 20

Darwin telescope, 199

day-night cycle, 9, 14

De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (On the Revolutions of the Celestial Sphere), 72

deforestation, 133

degeneracy, 267

degenerate-electron pressure, 267, 268

white dwarfs, 272–273

degenerate-neutron pressure, 286

degree (°), 12

Celsius (°C) and Fahrenheit (°F), 39

density

evolution of, 369

density-wave model, 315–316, 317, 318

density waves, 316–317

Dicke, Robert, 367, 368

Dietz, Robert, 126

differential rotation

of Sun, 217, 219–220

Digitized Sky Survey Project, 286

distance ladder, 336

distance-measuring techniques, 336

Dodo-Goldilocks trench (Mars), 160

Doppler, Christian, 49–50

Doppler effect, 49–50

and radial velocity method, 108

double stars, 240

Drake, Frank, 197

Drake equation, 198–199

Dressler, Alan, 352

dwarf elliptical galaxies, 331n, 333

dwarf planets, 96

Eagle Nebula, 258

Earth, 115, 116

abundances of elements on, 122

atmosphere of, 55, 118–121, 129, 155, 156, 158

average density of, 91

axis of rotation of, 13

characteristics of, 98

convection cells and, 120

cores of, 123, 124, 125, 129

craters on, 143, 144

crust of, 123, 124, 125–126, 129

daily motion and rotation of, 9–10

diameter of, 64, 65

energy absorbed by and emitted from, 121

and global warming, 135–136

ice rafts, 163

interior of, 129

interior temperatures, 124, 125

internal structure, 123, 124

and Kepler’s third law, 76

life on and water, 118

magnetic field of, 130–132

mantle of, 123, 124–125, 127, 129

measuring, 64, 65

orbit of and yearly motion, 10

orbit shape changes, 132

orbital data, A-1

physical data of, 90, A-1

rotation axis, 132–133

seasons of, 13–17

sidereal period of, 71

surface features, 154

surface temperatures of, 121, 122

temperatures of, 119–120, 135–136

tectonic plates of, 125–126

I-3

volcanoes on, 151

water on, 88, 116–118, 155

water cycle of, 116–117

Earth-Jupiter distance, 34

Earth-Moon distance, 64

Earth-Moon system, 17, 91

Earth-Sun distance, 14, 64, 71

earthquakes, 123–124

plate boundaries, 127

eccentricity (of an ellipse), 75, 89

eclipse path, 24, 25

eclipses, 21–26

conditions for, 22

ecliptic, 14, 15, 17, 67

ecliptic plane, 14, 15, 21, 22

Eddington, Sir Arthur, 350

Eddington limit, 350

Egyptian mythology

and Milky Way, 302

Einstein, Albert, 34, 43–44, 206–207, 289, 361, 365, 375

El Niño phenomenon, 132

electromagnetic energy, 36

electromagnetic radiation, 36–37

electromagnetic spectrum, 37–38

electromagnetic waves

frequency and wavelength of, 38

electromagnetism, 372–373

electron orbits, 45–46

elements

origin of, 97–100

Elliot, James L., 183

ellipses, 74, 75

elliptical (E) galaxies, 331, 332–333, 334

formation of, 352, 353

elongation (of planets), 70

emission line spectra, 46, 47

planetary nebulae, 270, 271

emission lines

active galactic nuclei, 348–349

of chromosphere spectrum, 214

of T Tauri stars, 255

emission nebulae, 253

Emperor Seamount Chain, 151

Enceladus, 116, 182

Encke Gap, 181

energy flux (F), 43, 238

Epsilon Eridani, 197, A-6

equinoxes, 15–16

era of recombination, 370, 371

Eratosthenes, 64

Eris, 96

escape speeds

of planets, A-2

ethane, liquid, 176

ethics

in science, 4

Europa (Jupiter moon), 92, 162–164, A-10

ice on, 93, 94, 162, 163, 193

water on, 92, 116, 192–193

European Space Agency (ESA), 230

evening star, 70

event horizon, 290

extrasolar planets

detecting through Doppler shift of star, 108

first direct images of, 107

microlensing of, 109–110

searches for, 105–110, 199–200

transiting, 108

extremophiles, 194

eyepiece lens, 51

F ring, 181, 182

Fahrenheit, Gabriel, 39

Fahrenheit temperature scale, 39

false-color images, 40

far-infrared wavelengths, 306

far side of the Moon, 20

first quarter moon, 17, 18

Fisher, Richard, 336

flake tectonics, 149, 150

flame front, 295

Flame Nebula, 255

flat universe, 374, 375

Fleming, Williamina, 235

flocculent spiral galaxy, 318

fluid resistance

in collision of galaxy clusters, 346

focal length (of lens), 51, 52

focal point, 52

focus (of an ellipse), 74

force, 77

forces, fundamental, 372–373

fossil fuels

burning of and global warming, 134

frequency, 38

friction, 77

full moon, 18

eclipses at, 22, 23

galactic cannibalism, 342–344

galactic center, 303, 305, 307, 312, 313, 320–321

galactic collisions, 346, 353

galactic deformation, 342

galactic disks, 303, 306–308, 312

of lenticular galaxies, 333, 334

of spiral galaxies, 332

and star formation, 254

galactic halo, 303, 307

dark matter, 315

lenticular galaxies, 334

galactic nucleus, 306, 307, 320–321

galaxies, 5, 6, 302–303, 328, 348

black hole masses in, 350–351

colors of, 352

distances to and redshifts of, 361–363

formation of, 371

gravitational fields of, 361

and gravitational lensing, 345

Hubble classification of, 331

properties of, 331

quasars in, 347–348

redshifts of, 363–364

sheets of, 340

stellar birthrate in, 353

supermassive black holes in, 350

and voids, 339, 340

see also clusters (of galaxies); dwarf elliptical galaxies; elliptical galaxies; irregular galaxies; lenticular galaxies; spiral arms; spiral galaxies; starburst galaxies; superclusters (of galaxies)

galaxy collisions, 340–342, 343

galaxy formation, 351–353

galaxy maps, 339–340

galaxy mergers, 342

Gale Crater (Mars), 161

Galilei, Galileo, 3, 34, 72–74, 179, 217

Galileo Probe, 172–173

Galileo spacecraft, 9, 17, 152, 153, 162, 163, 164, 171, 172

gamma rays, 37, 38

Ganymede (Jupiter moon), 92

gas giants, see Jupiter; Neptune; outer planets; Saturn; Uranus

Gemini (the Twins), 8

Gemini North Observatory, 54

Gemini North telescope, 105, 241

Genzel, Reinhard, 320

geocentric (Earth-centered) model, 66–68

Georgi, Howard, 372

geothermal vents

life at, 193–194

Ghez, Andrea, 320

giant elliptical galaxies, 333

Giant Magellan Telescope, 52–53, 54

giant stars, 240

Gibson, Everett, 197

Glacier National Park (Montana), 136

glaciers

and global warming, 135–136

Glashow, Sheldon, 372

global warming, 133, 134–136

globular clusters

Milky Way, 303, 304–305, 307

stellar evolution in, 269

Gondwana, 126

gossamer rings, 182

grand unified theories (GUTs), 372–373

grand-design spiral galaxy, 318

granulation, 213

granules

of photosphere, 213

gravitation, 3, 64, 372, 373

and orbits, 81

gravitation, law of universal, 80

gravitation, universal constant of, 80

gravitational energy

and core-collapse supernovae, 283, 295

gravitational force, 79

gravitational lensing, 345

gravity

and star formation, 254

and stellar evolution, 252

gray hematite, 195

Great Attractor, 339

Great Dark Spot (Neptune), 175

Great Nebula in Andromeda, 328

Great Nebula in Orion, 7

Great Observatories, 56

Great Red Spot (Jupiter), 168, 171, 172

greatest eastern elongation, 70

greatest western elongation, 70

Greek mythology

and Milky Way, 302

greenhouse effect, 121, 122, 135

runaway, 156

greenhouse gases, 121, 133, 135

I-4

Greenland ice cap, 136

Grinnell Glacier, 136

groups (of galaxies), 337

see also Local Group

Gruithuisen, Franz von, 143

Gunn, James, 352

GUTs, see grand unified theories

Hale, George Ellery, 217–218

Hawaiian Islands

volcanism, 151

HD 65750, 262, 263

heavy elements

origin of, 262–263, 266, 367

from supernovae, 280

Heezen, Bruce C., 126

heliocentric (Sun-centered) model, 69–72

helioseismology, 212

helium

high abundance of, 367

hydrogen conversion to, 207, 212

on Jupiter and Saturn, 169–170

in universe, 97

helium, liquid

on Neptune and Uranus, 176

helium “rainfall,” 170

helium flash, 265–267

helium fusion, 281

on neutron stars, 297

in red giants, 262, 264–267

Hellas Planitia (Mars), 148

Henize 2-47 (planetary nebula), 269

Henry Draper Catalogue, 235

Hercules Cluster (of galaxies), 337

Herschel, John, 240

Herschel, Sir William, 37, 240, 302, 303

hertz (Hz), 38

Hertz, Heinrich, 37, 38

Hertzsprung, Ejnar, 242

Hertzsprung-Russell (H-R) diagrams, 242–247

Hess, Harry, 126

Hewish, Anthony, 287

HH30, 256

High Resolution Imaging Science Experiment (HIRISE), 194

High Resolution Microwave Survey (HRMS), 200

High Resolution Stereo Camera, 195

high-mass stars

core-collapse supernovae, 282–283

end states of, 280

heavy-element fusion in, 280

structure of, 281

High-Z Supernova Search Team, 377

Himalayas, 128

Hindu stories

and Milky Way, 302

Hipparchus, 230

Hipparcos (High Precision Parallax Collecting Satellite), 230

homogeneous universe, 365

Hooke, Robert, 168

horizontal-branch stars, 268, 269

hot-spot volcanism, 151–152

hot spots, 374–375

Hubble, Edwin, 328, 329, 330, 360, 361, 363

tuning fork diagram, 334

Hubble classification (of galaxies), 331

Hubble constant, 363–364, 366

Hubble flow, 364–365

Hubble law, 363–364, 365, 366, 376

Hubble Space Telescope (HST), 5, 56, 231, 232, 241

and Cepheid variables, 335

circumstellar accretion disks, 256

dark matter searches, 346

extrasolar planets, 105

quasar host galaxies, 348

SN 1987A, 285\

supermassive black hole, 292

Veil Nebula, 286

white dwarfs, 272

human eye

light sensitivity of, 37

human population data

and biosphere, 133

Humason, Milton, 361

Huygens, Christiaan, 36, 179–180

Hydra-Centaurus (supercluster of galaxies), 369

hydrogen

conversion to helium, 207, 212

on Earth, 118

on Jupiter and Saturn, 169–170

liquid molecular, 176

mapping in Milky Way, 308–310

in universe, 97

hydrogen atom, 45, 46, 78, 369–370

hydrogen fusion, 281, 367

AGB stars, 270

main-sequence lifetime, 243, 258–259, 260

on white dwarfs, 296, 297

see also core hydrogen fusion; proton-proton chain

hydrogen gas

and galaxy collisions, 341

hydrogen spectral lines, 239–240

hydrostatic equilibrium, 209

and stellar evolution, 252

hypotheses, 2–3

Iapetus (moon), 141, 142

IC 2220 (nebula), 262

IC 4182 (galaxy), 330

IC 4593 (planetary nebula), 269

ice

in comets, 97

on Earth, 116, 117, 136

on Europa, 93, 94, 162, 163, 193

on Mars, 159, 160, 161, 194

on Neptune, 175

in solar nebula, 102

on Titan, 178

on Triton, 179

on Uranus, 175

see also ammonia ice; carbon dioxide ice; methane ice; nitrogen ice

ice ages, 133

ice giant planets, see Neptune; Uranus

ice rafts, 163

igneous rock, 130

impact craters, 143–144

Moon, 145

inferior conjunction, 70, 71

inflation, 372

inflationary epoch, 371–372

Infrared Astronomical Satellite (IRAS), 57, 306

infrared energy

and temperatures, 121, 122

infrared (IR) light, 37, 38, 39–40

infrared telescopes

and dark nebulae, 255

inner (terrestrial) planets, 88

atmospheres of, 155–159

average densities of, 91

characteristics of, 98

chemical composition, 94

diameters of, 90

formation of, 103, 104

iron cores of, 103

masses of, 90–91

physical properties of, 89–91

temperatures of, 95

see also Earth; Mars; Mercury; Venus

International Space Station, 63

interstellar gas and dust, 6

and birth of solar system, 100

and galaxy collisions, 340, 343

in Milky Way, 302–303, 306

in spiral galaxies, 332

and star formation, 252–258

and supernova remnants, 257, 258

interstellar medium, 252–253

elements from supernovae, 295

and planetary nebulae, 271

and supernovae remnants, 285

intracluster gas, 340

inverse-square law, 232–233

Io (Jupiter moon), 92, A-10

volcanoes on, 152–153

iron

in Earth’s interior, 122–123

in solar system, 91

in universe, 97

iron cores

of inner planets, 103

irregular cluster of galaxies, 338

irregular (Irr) galaxies, 331, 334

isotropic universe, 365

James Webb Space Telescope, 56

Jesuit observers, 73

Joule, James, 42

joules (J), 42–43

Jupiter, 168

atmosphere of, 169, 171, 172, 177

average density of, 169

belts and zones of, 168, 169, 171, 173

characteristics of, 99

chemical composition of, 94

clouds, 171, 172

composition of, 169–170

diameter of, 90

interior of, 170, 177

moons of, 73–74, 91, A-2, A-10

observing, 168–169

orbital data, A-1

physical properties of, 90, A-1

ring system, 182–183

rotation of, 168–169

storm systems, 88

I-5

surface of, 177

synodic and sidereal periods of, 71

temperatures of, 95, 172

wind speeds on, 173

Jupiter-Sun distance, 71

Kant, Immanuel, 100

Keck I and Keck II telescopes (Mauna Kea, Hawaii), 53, 58, 241

Kelvin, Lord, 39

Kelvin temperature scale, 39

Kepler, Johannes, 74–77, 89

Kepler mission, 199

Kepler’s first law, 74, 75

Kepler’s laws, 74–77

and Newton’s description of gravity, 79

Kepler’s second law (law of equal areas), 75, 76

Kepler’s third law, 76

for binary star systems, 240

Kieffer, Susan, 153

Kirchhoff, Gustav, 46, 47, 49

Kirchhoff-Bunsen experiment, 47, 49

Kirchhoff’s laws, 46–47

krypton

on Jupiter, 173

Kuiper belt, 96

Laplace, Pierre-Simon de, 100

Large Magellanic Cloud, 47, 258

and Milky Way, 342

SN 1987A, 284

Larsen B ice shelf, 135

last quarter moon, see third quarter moon

Laurasia, 126

lava, magnetized, 130

lava flows

on Venus and Mars, 152–155

law of equal areas (Kepler’s second law), 75

law of universal gravitation, 80

Leavitt, Henrietta, 304

Lehmann, Inge, 124

lenses (of telescopes), 51

lenticular galaxies, 333, 334

Leo I (dwarf elliptical galaxy), 333

Lick Observatory, 51, 295–296

life

appearance of, on Earth, 118–119

conditions for, 191–192

environment-altering, 132

and liquid water, 192–193

life-forms

comets and

and Mars meteorites, 196

search for, 190

light

characteristics of, 35

colors of, 35–36

Doppler effect, 49–50

as electromagnetic energy, 36

electromagnetic spectrum of, 37

gravitational bending of, 344–345

and temperature, 38–43

wave and particle properties of, 36, 43–44

wavelengths of, 33

light, reflected, 17

light, speed of, 34

light curves

of nova, 297

of supernovae, 295

light-gathering power (of telescopes), 50–51, 53

light quanta, 43

light rays

gravitational deflection of, 344–345

light scattering, 47, 48

light-year (ly), 65, 66

lightning

on Earth, 119

on Jupiter, 173

Lin, Chia Chiao, 316

Lindblad, Bertil, 316

line of nodes, 21, 22

liquid molecular hydrogen, 176

lithium, 97

lithosphere, 127, 129

LL Ori (star), 105

Local Group (of galaxies), 337, 338, 369

Local Supercluster, 339

Lowell Crater (Mars), 143

luminosity, 43, 232, 239

and apparent brightness, 232–233

Eddington limit, 350

of Sun, 44, 232

luminosity classes, 246

lunar day, 20

lunar eclipses, 21, 22–25

in 2014–2018, 23

lunar highlands, 145

lunar month, see synodic month

lunar phases, 17–20

Lynden-Bell, Donald, 350

Lyra (the Harp), 8

M15, 271

M16 (star cluster), 258

M31, see Andromeda Galaxy

M32, 328

M33 (galaxy), 337

M39 (star cluster), 227

M51, see Whirlpool Galaxy

M55 (globular cluster), 268, 269, 305

M80 (globular cluster), 304

M81 (galaxy), 33, 331, 332, 341–342

M82 (starburst galaxy), 340–342

M83 (Southern Pinwheel Galaxy), 310, 332

M84, 333, 338

M86, 333, 338

M100 (spiral galaxy), 329, 331, 335, 336, 338

M105, 333

M110, 328

Maat Mons (volcano), 153

Mab (moon of Uranus), 184

MACHOs, see massive compact halo objects

Magellan spacecraft, 147, 148, 149, 151, 152

magnetic-dynamo model, 219–220

magnetosphere, 130–131

magnification

telescopes and, 50, 52, 53

main sequence, 242–243, 245

main-sequence lifetime, 258, 260–263

main-sequence stars, 243, 245

masses of, 244, 245

mass-luminosity relation, 244

major axis (of an ellipse), 74

Manicouagan Reservoir (Quebec), 143

Maori people

and Milky Way, 302

March equinox, 15–16

mare basins (Moon), 145

Mars, 76, 142, 143

atmosphere of, 118, 155, 156, 157–158

characteristics of, 98

chemical composition of, 94

craters on, 143, 146

crust of, 149–151

geologic activity on, 151

gullies on, 161–162, 194

ice on, 159, 160, 161, 194

meteorites from 196

moons of, 91, A-2

orbital data, A-1

physical properties of, 90, A-1

retrograde rotation of, 67–68

runaway icehouse effect, 157

search for life on, 193–197

seasons on, 159

spacecraft landings on, 160–162

surface features, 147, 154, 159, 160–162

synodic and sidereal periods of, 71

temperatures of, 95, 157–159

topographic map of, 148

volcanoes, 146, 147, 151–155

water on, 155, 159, 160–162, 194–196

Mars Exploration Rovers (Spirit and Opportunity), 148, 160–161, 195

Mars Express spacecraft, 194, 195

Mars Global Surveyor, 147, 148, 161, 162

Mars Odyssey orbiter, 161

Mars Pathfinder, 148, 160

Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, 87, 194

Mars-Sun distance, 71

mass, 78

mass-luminosity relation, 244

mass-radius relation

for white dwarfs, 272, 273

massive compact halo objects (MACHOs), 314–315

matter

in universe, 369

Mauna Kea (volcano), Hawaii, 151

telescopes on, 58

Maury, Antonia, 235

MAXIMA experiment, 371, 375

McKay, David, 197

Mediterranean Sea, 126

Mercury, 76, 142, 143

atmosphere of, 156

characteristics of, 98

diameter of, 90

orbital data, 71, 75, A-1

physical properties of, 90, A-1

surface of, 145–146, 154

synodic and sidereal periods of, 71

temperatures of, 95

Mercury-Sun distance, 71

Meridiani Planum (Mars), 195

mesosphere, 119, 120, 129

Messier, Charles, 284, 328

Messier (M-) number, 328

I-6

metals

astronomy definition of, 237

in spiral galaxies, 331

meteorites

ancient, and life-forms, 191

from Mars, 196

methane, 135

on Jupiter, 174

on Neptune and Uranus, 176

on Uranus, 174–175

methane ice, 94

on Neptune, 175, 176

on Triton, 179

methane rainfall

on Titan, 176, 178

methyl bromide, 133

Metis (moon), 182

microlensing, 315

of extrasolar planets, 109–110

micrometers (microns), 38

microwave background, see cosmic microwave background

microwave photons, 369

microwave sky

map of, 368

microwaves, 38

Mid-Atlantic Ridge, 126

Milky Way Galaxy, 1, 2, 55, 57, 301, 302, 328

center of, 303, 305, 312, 320–321

central bulge, 306, 307, 308, 311

dark matter, 314–315

disk of, 303, 306–308, 312

globular clusters, 303, 304–305, 307

halo of, 303, 307, 308

and Large Magellanic Cloud, 342

and Local Group, 337–338

mapping hydrogen in, 308–310

mass of, 313

molecular clouds of, 311

planetary nebulae in, 270, 271

predicted collision with Andromeda Galaxy, 342

rotation of, 312–313

rotation curve, 313

shape and structure of, 302–303, 306–307

spiral arms, 308, 309–311, 318

spiral structure, 315–316

star formation in, 254, 318

star orbits, 307

stellar populations, 307–308

supernovae in, 286

supermassive black hole in, 321–322, 350, 351

Miller-Urey experiments, 191, 192

Mimas (moon), 181

Minkowski, Rudolph, 346

minor planets, see asteroids

Mintaka, 7

Mir space station, 24

mirrors

reflecting telescopes, 52–53

Moon, 92

angular diameter of, 12

craters and cratering, 143, 144, 145

dark and far sides of, 20

diameter of, 65

during daytime, 18

light from, 17

orbital inclination of, 21

phases of, 17–20

sidereal and synodic months, 20–21

synchronous rotation of, 20

see also Earth-Moon system and entries under lunar

moonrise and moonset, 18

moons

of solar system, 91–92, A-3–A-4

morning star, 70

motion, see apparent motion

Mount Everest, 128

Mount St. Helens, 155

Mount Wilson telescope, 361

mountain building, 128

Mueller, M. W., 318

multiple-star systems, 240

Muno, Michael, 322

MyCn18 (planetary nebula), 271

N44 (nebula), 47

Nakhla (meteorite), 196

nanometer (nm), 38

National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), 200

Great Observatories, 56

Kepler observatory, 107

natural satellites, see moons

Nazca plate, 127

near-infrared wavelengths, 55, 306

nebulae, 5, 6, 253, 328

see also dark nebula; emission nebulae; planetary nebulae; reflection nebula; solar nebula

nebulosity

of stars, 97

neon fusion, 280, 281

Neptune, 76, 168

atmosphere of, 174–176

belts and zones of, 176

brightness of, 67

characteristics of, 99

clouds on, 175, 176

formation of, 104

ice on, 175

interior of, 176, 177

moons of, 91, 179, A-3

orbital data, A-1

physical properties of, 90, A-1

and Pluto’s orbit, 96

rings of, 184

storms on, 175

surface of, 177

synodic and sidereal periods of, 71

temperatures of, 95

water on, 176

Neptune-Sun distance, 71

neutrinos, 212, 282, 283

and supernovae, 295

neutron stars, 280, 285, 286–287

magnetic fields of, 287, 288

as pulsars, 287

and X-ray bursters, 297

neutrons

from thermonuclear reactions of heavy elements, 281

new moon

and eclipses, 22

Newton, Isaac, 3, 35–36, 64, 74, 79–80, 360

Newton’s first law of motion, 77

Newton’s laws of motion, 77–79

Newton’s second law of motion, 77–78, 79

Newton’s third law of motion, 78–79, 80

Newtonian telescope, 52

NGC 628, 318

NGC 1337, 331

NGC 1365, 332

NGC 1531, 327, 328

NGC 1532, 327, 328

NGC 2024, 255

NGC 2264, 259, 260

NGC 3077, 341–342

NGC 3377, 333

NGC 3627, 292–293

NGC 4321, 331

NGC 4406, 333

NGC 4414, 318

NGC 4650, 332

NGC 4889, 338

NGC 5307, 269

NGC 5315, 269

NGC 5866, 334

NGC 6726-27-29 (reflection nebula), 254

NGC 7027, 271

NGC 7331, 307

NGC 8374, 338

night sky, 7–8, 10, 360, 366

nitrates, 119

nitrogen

on Earth, 118, 119, 155

in universe, 97

nitrogen cycle, 119

nitrogen ice

on Triton, 179

nitrous oxide, 135

Norma Arm, 311

North American plate, 128

north celestial pole, 13

north celestial sphere, 12, 13

North Star, see Polaris

northern lights (aurora borealis), 131, 223

northern solstice, 15, 16

nova (plural, novae), 293, 295–297

light curve of, 297

Nova Cygni 1975, 297

O and B stars

and emission nebulae, 253

in galaxy formation, 352, 353

hydrogen fusion in, 263

Milky Way, 307–308, 320

OBAFGKM sequence, 235–236

objective lens, 50, 51

objective mirror, 52

observable universe, 366, 367

and inflation, 372

Occam’s razor, 69

occultation, 183

oceanic rifts, 127

oceans

on Europa, 164

Olbers, Heinrich, 360

I-7

Olbers’s paradox, 360, 363, 366

Oldham, Richard Dixon, 124

Oliver, Bernard, 200

Olympus Mons, 94, 151, 152

1E0657-56 (galaxy cluster), 346

Oort cloud, 97

open universe, 374, 375

Opportunity rover, 195

opposition (of planets), 70

orbital eccentricities, 75, 89, A-1

orbital speeds, 75, 76

orbits

and gravitation, 81

shapes of, 71

sizes of, 71

Orion (the Hunter), 7, 8, 57

Orion Arm, 311

Orion Nebula, 253, 256

newborn stars in, 40

protoplanetary disks, 101

Orion’s sword, 101, 253

outer (Jovian) planets, 88

average densities of, 91

characteristics of, 99

chemical composition of, 94

diameters of, 90

formation of, 104

masses of, 90–91

physical properties of, 89–91

temperatures of, 95

see also Jupiter; Neptune; Saturn; Uranus

outside force, 77

oxygen

on Earth, 118, 119, 155

in stars, 262, 266

in universe, 97

oxygen fusion, 280, 281

ozone, 120

and life, 199

ozone hole, 134

ozone layer, 129, 133–134

P (longitudinal) waves, 123–124

Pacific plate, 151

Pallas, 95

Pandora (moon), 181

Pangaea, 126, 127–128

parallax

and stellar distances, 228–230

parsecs, 229

partial lunar eclipse, 22, 23

partial solar eclipse, 24

Pater, Imke de, 184

Pati, Jogesh, 372

Payne, Cecilia, 236

Peebles, P. J. E., 367

Pele (volcanic vent), 153

penumbra

of Earth’s shadow, 23

of Moon’s shadow, 24

of sunspots, 217

penumbral lunar eclipse, 22, 23

Penzias, Arno, 368, 371

perihelion, 75

period-luminosity relations, 329

for Cepheid and RR variables, 304–305

Perlmutter, Saul, 377

Perseus Arm, 311

Peru-Chile Trench, 127

PG 0052+251 (quasar), 348

PG 1012+008 (quasar), 348

Phoenix Mars Lander, 160, 162

phosphorus, 97

photon emission, 45–46

photons, 43–44

cosmic microwave background, 369

photosphere, 212–213, 214

see also sunspots

photosynthesis, 118

phytoplankton, 132

Pickering, E. C., 235

Pillan Patera (volcanic vent), 153

Pioneer 10, 170, 203

Pioneer 11, 171, 182, 203

pixels, 57

plane of the ecliptic, 89

planet, 88

planetary nebulae, 269–271, 273

emission line spectra, 46, 47

properties of, 270–271

planetary orbits

ellipses, 74

planetesimals, 103, 104

planets, 76

apparent motion of, 69

atmospheres and chemical composition, 92–93

characteristics of, 6, 98–99

chemical composition of, 92–95

elongation of, 70

formation of, 102–104

orbital data, 71, 88–89, A-1

orbits and configurations of, 70

orbits of and gravitation, 79–80

periods of, 71

physical properties of, 89–91, A-1

retrograde rotation of, 68

sidereal periods of, 71, 76

size of and cratering, 144

synodic periods of, 71

transiting, 107

see also dwarf planets; extrasolar planets; inner planets; outer planets

plasma

solar atmosphere, 218

of Sun, 370

universe, 370

plastic material, 125

plate tectonics, 125–128, 150

Pleiades, 259

Pleione (star), 246

Pluto, 88, 96

pointer stars, 12

polar ice

and global warming, 136

Polaris (North Star), 7, 8, 13, 64, 228

Population I (metal-rich) stars, 262, 307, 308

Population II (metal-poor) stars, 262, 307, 308

in protogalaxies, 352

powers of ten, 66, A-8–A-9

primary mirror, 52

prism, 35–36

Procyon, 233, A-6

Prometheus (moon), 181

Prometheus volcano (Io), 152

proplyds, see protoplanetary disks

protogalaxy, 352, 353

proton-proton chain, 207, 208

protoplanetary disks (proplyds), 101, 105, 256

protoplanets, 103, 104

protostars

evolution of, 254–256

protosun, 100, 104

Proxima Centauri, 66, 230

PSR 0329+54, 287

Ptolemaic system, 68–69, 72, 73

Ptolemy, 68

pulsars, 6, 280, 285, 287–288

quasars, 347–348

black holes in, 351

quasi-stellar objects, see quasars

radial velocity method, 108–109

radiation

defined, 36–37

in universe, 369

radiative diffusion, 210, 211

radiative zone, 211, 212

radio emissions, 346–347

radio-quiet quasars, 347

radio searches

for alien civilizations, 199, 200–201

radio stations

frequencies of, 38

radio telescopes, 197

radio waves, 37

rain forests, 133

Reber, Grote, 346

recessional velocity

and Hubble law, 361, 363–364

of universe, 376

recombination, 370

see also era of recombination

red dwarfs, 238, 261–262, 272

end of life of, 263

hydrogen fusion in, 263

mass loss, 264

red giant stars, 243, 273, 280

evolution of, 267

formation of, 259–260

helium fusion, 262, 264–267

in Milky Way, 308

red light, 48

red stars, 227, 228, 234–235

in spiral galaxies, 331

redshift, cosmological, 364–365

reflecting telescopes, 52–54

reflection, 17

reflection nebula, 254

refracting telescopes, 51–52, 53

regular cluster of galaxies, 338

relativity, general theory of

and black holes, 289

relativity, special theory of, 34, 206

respiration, 119

retrograde rotation, 67, 68, 69–70

rift valleys

on Mars, 150

I-8

Rigel, 240, 243

ring particles

of Saturn, 181, 182

Roche, Edouard, 181

Roche limit, 181

rocks

melting temperature of, 125

Roman Catholic Church

and Galileo, 74

Roman mythology

and Milky Way, 302

Rømer, Olaus, 34

Röntgen, Wilhelm 37

ROSAT observatory, 57

Roswell, New Mexico, 197

rotation curves, 313

Andromeda, 350–351

of galaxies, 344

RR Lyrae variables, 305

RS Ophiuchi (star), 296–297

runaway greenhouse effect, 156

runaway helium fusion, 270

runaway icehouse effect, 157

rupes, see scarps

Russell, Henry Norris, 242

S (transverse) waves, 123–124

Sa galaxies, 331–332

Sagan, Carl, 44

Sagittarius (the Archer), 57, 254

Sagittarius A, 346

Sagittarius A+, 320–322

Sagittarius Arm, 311

Sagittarius constellation, 346

globular clusters, 305

Saha, Meghnad, 236

Salam, Abdus, 372

salt water

on Earth, 116

San Andreas fault, 128

sand dunes

on Mars, 195

on Titan, 178

Sandage, Allan, 347

Saturn, 76, 168

atmosphere of, 169–170, 172, 177

average density of, 91, 169

belts and zones of, 168, 169

characteristics of, 99

clouds of, 172

composition of, 169–170

interior, 177

internal structure of, 170

moons of, 91, A-3–A-4

observing, 168–169

orbital data, 71, A-1

physical properties of, 90, A-1

rotation period of, 169

storms on, 167

surface, 177

synodic and sidereal periods of, 71

temperatures of, 172

Saturn ring system, 168, 179–182

Saturn-Sun distance, 71

Sb galaxies, 331, 332

SBa galaxies, 332

SBb galaxies, 332

SBc galaxies, 332

Sc galaxies, 331, 332

scarps

on Mercury, 146

Schmidt, Brian, 377

Schmidt, Maarten, 347

Schwarzschild, Karl, 290

Schwarzschild radius, 290

scientific methods, 2–3

Scutum-Centaurus Arm, 311

seafloor spreading, 126, 127

search for extraterrestrial intelligence (SETI), 197, 200

seasons

on Earth, 13–17

secondary mirrors, 52

self-propagating star-formation model, 318–319

semimajor axis

of an ellipse, 74, 76

of planets, A-1

September equinox, 16

SERENDIP IV (Search for Extraterrestrial Radio Emission from Nearby, Developed, Intelligent Populations), 200

Serpens constellation, 340

SETI Institute, 200

SETI@home, 200

shadow zone (Earth), 124

Shapley, Harlow, 305, 328–329

Shapley-Curtis debate, 329, 330

shell fusion, 281–282

shell helium fusion, 268

Shergotty (meteorite), 196

shield volcanoes, 151

shock waves

core-collapse supernovae, 282–283

from impacts on Moon, 143

SN 1987A, 285

of supernovae, 257, 258

Shoemaker, Eugene, 153

short-range forces, 372

Shu, Frank, 316

sidereal month, 20–21

sidereal period, 71, 76, A-1

Sierras, 127

silicon

from supernovae, 295

in universe, 97

silicon fusion 281–282

singularity (of black hole), 290

Sirius (α Canis Major), 7, 168, 231, 232, 233, 239, 272, A-6

temperature and energy flux, 45

Sirius B, 239, 243, 272, A-6

61 Cygni, 230, A-6

skin cancer, 134

sky

blue color of, 48

slash-and-burn process, 133

Sloan Digital Sky Survey, 339

Small Magellanic Cloud, 281

SMC N76, 281

Smith, Bradford, 153

SN 2005cs, 284

SNC meteorites, 196

SO-16 (star), 320–321

SOHO spacecraft, 221

Sojourner rover, 160–161

solar constant, 44

solar corona, 24

Solar Dynamics Observatory, 216

solar eclipses, 21, 22–23, 24, 25–26

in 2014–2018, 26

number of occurrences of, 22–23

solar energy, 206–211

and Earth’s atmosphere, 121, 122

movement out from solar interior, 207–212

in summer and winter, 14

transport of, 210–211

solar flares, 221

solar granulation, 213

solar luminosity, 207, 211

solar nebula, 100–102

elements in, 102

formation of protoplanets, 103, 104

magnetic fields of, 104

temperatures in, 102

solar nebular hypothesis, 100

solar prominences, 221

solar radius, 210–211

solar system, 5, 6

age of, 366

defined, 88, 89

evolution of, 104–105

formation of, 100–105, 106

moons of, 91–92

solar ultraviolet radiation, 120, 134

solar wind, 105, 130–131, 216

solstices, 15,

sound waves

Doppler effect for, 49–50

South American plate, 127

south celestial sphere, 12, 13

Southern Cross (Crux), 7, 12

Southern Crown (Corona Australis), 254

southern lights (aurora australis), 131

southern solstice, 15, 16

Space Infrared Telescope Facility, 56

spacetime

and black holes, 289, 290

spectral classes, 235–237

spectral lines, 49

spectral types, 235–236

spectroscopic parallax, 246–247

spectroscopy, 49

and determining chemical composition, 92–93

spectrum (plural, spectra), 35

see also continuous spectrum; electromagnetic spectrum; emission line spectrum

speed, 77

Spica, 7, 234

spicules, 214–215

spin (angular momentum), 309

spin-flip transition, 309

spiral arms, 308, 310, 311, 318

of barred spirals, 332

I-9

density-wave model, 315–316, 317, 318

Milky Way, 309–311, 318

spiral (S) galaxies, 310, 318, 328, 331–332, 334

formation of, 352, 353

rotation curves of, 344

spiral nebulae, 328

Spirit rover, 195

Spitzer Infrared Space Telescope, 56, 257, 258, 260, 292, 307, 311

spring (season), 15

standard candles, 335

star formation, 252–258, 328

density-wave model, 317

in protogalaxies, 352

self-propagating, 318–319

in spiral galaxies, 331

starburst galaxies, 340–341

Starobinsky, Alexei, 371

stars, 5, 6, 228

absolute magnitude of, 232

apparent magnitudes of, 232

apparent motion of, 13

artificial, 54

asymptotic giant-branch, 268–269

calculating radii of, 238

circumpolar, 11, 12

colors of, 234–235

daily motion of, 8–9

determining size from spectra, 239–240

and Earth’s rotation, 9

elements expelled from 97–100

end-states of, 280

and galaxy collisions, 340

from giants to white dwarfs, 240, 273

horizontal-branch, 268, 269

from main sequence to red giant lifetime, 263–269

iron core of, 281, 282

luminosity of, 43, 232, 233–234

main sequence, 242–243, 245

main-sequence lifetime, 258, 260–263

mass-loss phase, 262, 263

masses of, 240–242

measuring distances to, 228–230

metal poor and metal rich, 262

nearest, A-6

redshifts and blueshifts of, 50

surface temperatures, 236–237, 239

temperatures of and color, 234–235

visually brightest, A-7

wobble of, 107–108

see also high-mass stars; neutron stars; O and B stars; Population I stars; Population II stars; red giant stars; and entries under stellar

Stefan-Boltzmann constant, 238, 239

Stefan-Boltzmann law, 43, 44–45, 121, 238

stellar brightness, see apparent magnitude scale

stellar distances, 66

stellar evolution, 252, 269

stellar masses, 244, 245

stellar nurseries

dark nebulae, 254

and supernova remnants, 257

stellar parallax, 228–230

stellar radii, 239

stellar spectra, 235–237

absorption lines, 237, 239–240

and surface temperature, 236–237

stellar winds

and mass loss from supergiant, 281

and star formation, 257–258

storms

Great Red Spot, 168, 171

on Jupiter, 88

on Neptune, 175

stratosphere, 119, 120, 129

strong nuclear force, 372–373

subduction zone, 127

sulfur compounds

on Venus, 153–155

sulfur dioxide snow, 153

sulfuric acid

Venus’s clouds, 157

summer, 14

summer solstice, see northern solstice

summer triangle, 8

Sun, 5, 6, 205, 206

absolute magnitude, 232

apparent magnitude, 232

atmosphere of, 213, 214, 215

birth of and solar nebular hypothesis, 100–102

chromosphere, 214–215

composition of, 238

corona, 214, 215–216, 221

data table, 222

diameter of, 65

early composition of, 260, 261

energy flux of, 44

evolution of, 270

helium fusion, 265

hydrogen fusion, 265, 267

interior of, 211, 212, 220

light from, 17

luminosity of, 44, 232

magnetic field arches, 220

magnetic fields of, 218–222

main-sequence lifetime to end of, 274, 275

mass of, 78

modeling of, 210–211

movement on celestial sphere, 14, 15

orbital motion of, 313

photosphere, 212–213

polarity pattern, 218–219

as Population I star, 262

rotation of, 217, 219–220

temperatures of, 42, 44, 210, 211, 213, 214, 215, 216

wavelength of maximum emission, 44

wobble of, 107–108

see also entries under solar

sunlight

colors of, 35, 36

intensity of, 121, 122

spectrum of and Doppler shifts, 50

sunrises and sunsets, 48

sunspot cycle, 217–219, 220

sunspot maximum, 217, 218

sunspot minimum, 217, 218

sunspots, 216–220

latitudes of, 218

magnetic fields of, 217–219, 220, 221

superclusters (of galaxies), 338–339, 369

supercontinents, 126, 127–128

supergiant stars, 240, 243

evolution of, 281–282

mass loss from, 281

Milky Way, 308

supergranules, 213

superior conjunction, 70

superior planets

orbits and configurations of, 70

supermassive black holes, 292–293, 350

Milky Way, 302, 321–322

Supernova (SN) 1987A, 284–285

Supernova Cosmology Project, 377

supernova of 1054, 286

supernova remnants, 257, 285–286

supernovae, 5, 6, 97, 280, 281, 293, 359, 360

brightness increases and declines, 295

Hubble diagram for, 377

luminosity of, 284

and star formation, 257

see also core-collapse supernovae

surface waves, 123

SWIFT orbiting telescope, 335

Syene, Egypt, 64, 65

synchronous rotation

of Moon, 20

synodic month, 20–21

synodic period, 71, A-1

T Tauri (protostar), 255

T Tauri stars, 105, 255, 256

T Tauri wind, 104–105

Tarantula Nebula, 284

Tau Ceti, 197, A-6

Taurus (the Bull), 8

technology

in science, 4–5

tectonic plates, 128

telescopes, 4–5, 50–59

light-gathering power of, 50–51, 53

temperature

and light, 38–43

temperature scales, 39

Terrestrial Planet Finder, 199

terrestrial planets, see Earth; inner planets; Mars; Mercury; Venus

atmospheres of, 155–159

terrestrial worlds

craters on, 143–147

Tethys Ocean, 126

Thales of Miletus, 26

Tharsis rise (Mars), 149–150, 152

theory, 3–4

theory of everything (TOE), 373

thermal equilibrium, 209

thermal pulses, 270, 273

thermal vents, 189

thermonuclear fusion, 207

thermonuclear supernova, see Type Ia supernovae

I-10

thermonuclear synthesis, 367

thermosphere, 119, 120–121, 129

Third Cambridge (3C) Catalogue, 347

third quarter moon, 18

3C 48, 347

3C 273, 347

tidal forces

and galaxy collisions, 342, 343

Titan (Saturn moon), 92, 176–178

atmosphere of, 93, 178

water on, 116

water ice on, 178

titanium oxide, 237

total lunar eclipses, 22, 24

total solar eclipses, 24, 25

totality, 23

TRACE (Transition Region and Coronal Explorer), 221

transit, 107, 199

transit method, 107

transiting planets, 107

trans-Neptunian objects (TNOs), 6, 96

moons of, 91

Trapezium, 40, 253

Triangulum constellation quasar, 348

triple alpha process, 265

Triton (Neptune moon), 92, 179

ice on, 179

Tropic of Cancer, 16, 17

Tropic of Capricorn, 16, 17

troposphere, 119–120, 129

Trumpler, Robert J., 302

tube worms, 189

Tully, Brent, 336

Tully-Fisher relation, 336

tuning fork diagram of galaxies, 334

21-cm radio emission, 309–310

22-year solar cycle, 219

Two Degree Field Galactic Redshift Survey (2dFGRS), 339–340

2MASS (Two-Micron All-Sky Survey), 339

Type I (metal-rich) Cepheids, 329

Type I supernovae, 293

Type Ia supernovae, 293–295

and ancient expansion of universe, 377

as distance indicators, 330

luminosity decline in, 295

as standard candles, 335

Type Ib supernovae, 293

Type Ic supernovae, 293

Type II (metal-poor) Cepheids, 329

Type II supernovae, 293, 295

Tyson, J. Anthony, 345

Uhuru X-ray–detecting satellite, 292

ultraviolet (UV) light, 38, 43

ultraviolet radiation

from SN 1987A, 285

umbra

of Earth’s shadow, 23

of Moon’s shadow, 24

of sunspots, 217

UN Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 136

universal constant of gravitation, 80

universe

acceleration of, 375–378

age of, 365–366

curvature of, 373–375

dark-energy–dominated, 378

expanding, 360, 361–365

expansion history, 375–377

expansion rate of, 375

isotropic and homogeneous, 365

matter-dominated, 369

nonuniformities in early, 370–371

observable, 366, 367

radiation and matter in, 369

radiation-dominated, 369

shape of, 373–375

Uranus, 76, 168

atmosphere of, 173–174, 177

brightness of, 67

characteristics of, 99

formation of, 104

ice on, 175

interior of, 176, 177

moons of, 91, A-3

orbital data of, A-1

physical properties of, 90, A-1

rings of, 183–184

surface of, 177

synodic and sidereal periods of, 71

water on, 176

winds on, 174

Uranus-Sun distance, 71

Ursa Major constellation 7, 341

V838 Monocerotis (protostar), 254, 255

Valles Marineris (Mars), 150

Veil Nebula, 285, 286

velocity, 77

Venus, 76, 142, 143

atmosphere of, 118, 155, 156–157, 158

brightness of, 67

characteristics of, 98

clouds of, 88, 157

convection currents on, 149

craters on, 146, 149

crust of, 148–149

flake tectonics on, 149

orbital data of, 75, A-1

phases of, 72, 73

physical properties of, 90, A-1

rotation of, 50

sulfur compounds on, 153–155, 157

surface of, 147, 154

synodic and sidereal periods of, 71

temperatures on, 156, 157

topographic map of, 148

volcanoes on, 151–155

water on, 155, 156–157

wind speeds on, 157

Venus-Sun distance, 71

vernal equinox, see March equinox

Very Large Telescope (VLT), 241, 292

Vesta, 95

Viking Landers 1 and 2, 148, 159

Virgo (the Virgin), 7

Virgo cluster (of galaxies), 333, 338

visible light, 37–38

and temperature, 39–40

wavelength and frequency of, 38

voids, 339, 340

volcanoes

on Earth, 151

on Io, 92

on Mars, 146, 147, 151–155

and plate boundaries, 127

in solar system, 88

on Venus, 151–155

Voyager 1, 152, 153, 171, 182

Voyager 2, 168, 169, 171, 173–175, 179, 182, 183

W Ursae Majoris, 296

waning gibbous moon, 18

water

on Earth, 116–118, 155

on Europa, 92, 116, 192–193

and life, 192–193

on Mars, 155, 159, 160–162

on Neptune, 176

properties of, 117–118

searches for, 159–164

on Titan, 116

on Uranus, 176

on Venus, 155, 156–157

water hole, 200

water ice, 92, 94

on Europa, 93, 94

on Mars, 155, 159, 160–162, 194–196

on Moon, 145

Saturn’s rings, 181

on Titan, 178

water vapor

on Earth, 117, 118

and life, 199

water waves, 36

watt (W), 43

wavelength

and frequency, 38

of light, 37

wavelength of maximum emission, 42, 44

wavelength shift, 49, 50

waxing crescent moon, 17

waxing gibbous moon, 18

weak nuclear force, 372–373

weakly interacting massive particles (WIMPs), 315

weather

and telescopes, 55–56

Wegener, Alfred, 126

weight, 78

Whirlpool Galaxy (M51), 328, 331

star formation in, 317

supernova SN 2005cs, 284

white dwarfs, 240, 243–244, 246, 280

carbon fusion, 294

evolutionary tracks of, 273

formation of, 272

properties of, 272–275

and Type Ia supernovae, 293–295

white light, 35–36, 48

white oval, 171

I-11

Wien, Wilhelm, 41

Wien’s law, 41–42, 44–45, 121

Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP), 371, 375

Wilkinson, David, 371

William of Occam, 69

Wilson, Robert, 368, 371

WIMPs, see weakly interacting massive particles

winding dilemma, 315–316

windows

in Earth’s atmosphere, 55

winter, 14

winter solstice, see southern solstice

winter triangle, 8

Wolf Star (Sirius), 302, A-6

X-ray bursters, 297

X-ray emissions

and black holes, 292, 293

in clusters of galaxies, 344

X-ray flares, 321

X-ray sources

galaxy collisions, 340

X-ray telescopes, 56

X-rays, 37, 38

xenon, 173

XZ Tau, 256

Yang Wei-T’e, 286

yellow stars, 227, 228, 234

Yellowstone National Park

geothermal vents, 194–195

Young, Thomas, 36

Zamama volcano (Io), 152

Zeeman, Pieter, 218

Zeeman effect, 218

zones, see belts and zones

I-12