Use the following to help you analyze and evaluate how proposal writers use the genre’s basic features. The writing strategies they typically use to convince readers to adopt the proposed solution are illustrated below with examples from the readings in this chapter as well as sentence strategies you can experiment with later, as you write your own proposal.

A FOCUSED, WELL-DEFINED PROBLEM

Read first to see how the writer defines or frames the problem. Framing a problem is a way of preparing readers for the proposed solution by focusing on the aspect of the problem the proposal tries to solve. In “More Testing, More Learning,” for example, student Patrick O’Malley frames the problem in terms of the detrimental effects of high-stakes exams on students’ learning. If O’Malley were writing to students instead of their teachers, he might have framed the problem in terms of students’ poor study habits or procrastination. By framing the problem as he did, he indicates that teachers, rather than students, have the ability to solve the problem and tries to convince readers that it is real and serious. Consider, for example, how (and how well) the writer frames the problem

Probably the most convincing strategy writers use to demonstrate the severity of the problem is to cite researchstudies and statistics. As you read, look for source material, and notice whether the writer emphasizes the credibility of the research by including the expert’s name and credentials or by identifying the publication in which the study appeared at the beginning of the sentence in which the study is mentioned:

Alternatively, the writer may emphasize the source material by putting the information about the study up front and identifying the source later in the sentence or in the parenthetical citation, as in the following:

Then assess whether the problem is focused enough to have been treated in the depth needed to achieve the writer’s purpose with the original audience. To make their proposal manageable, writers concentrate on one aspect of a broad problem—for example, Brownell and Frieden focus on sugar-sweetened beverages, which they claim “may be the single largest driver of the obesity epidemic” (par. 2).

A WELL-ARGUED SOLUTION

To argue convincingly for a solution to a problem, writers need to make clear exactly what is being proposed and offer supporting reasons and evidence showing that the proposed solution

Read first to find the proposed solution, usually declared in a thesis statement early in the essay. Typically, the thesis describes the proposed solution briefly and indicates how it would solve the problem, as in this example, which contrasts the problem’s disadvantages with the solution’s benefits:

Then check to see how the writer presents the supporting reasons and evidence, and consider how compelling the argument is likely to be, given the writer’s purpose and audience. The following sentence strategies and accompanying examples suggest the kinds of reasons and evidence proposal writers often employ to present their argument, as well as the writing strategies they represent:

AN EFFECTIVE RESPONSE TO OBJECTIONS AND ALTERNATIVE SOLUTIONS

Writers proposing solutions need to anticipate and respond to readers’ likely objections and to the alternative solutions readers may prefer. Writers typically respond in one or more of the following ways:

A typical way of conceding is to use a sentence strategy like this:

Before writing his proposal, student Patrick O’Malley interviewed professors so that he could respond to their objections. Notice how his concession is really a compromise designed to convince readers of his proposal’s flexibility:

A typical refutation summarizes the objection or alternative solution and then explains why the criticism is problematic. Proposal writers refute objections and alternative solutions more often than they concede. Following are common sentence strategies used to refute objections and alternative solutions:

Here are a few examples showing how the proposals in this chapter refute objections or alternative solutions. Notice that proposal writers often introduce the refutation with a transition that indicates contrast, such as but, although, nevertheless, or however:

When reading a proposal, consider whether the writer presents others’ views fairly and accurately and whether the writer’s rebuttal is likely to be convincing to readers. Pay special attention to the writer’s tone in responding to other views, noting any place the tone seems sarcastic or dismissive and considering whether such a tone would be effective given the writer’s purpose and audience.

A CLEAR, LOGICAL ORGANIZATION

Look for cues or signposts that help readers identify the parts of the proposal. Identify the topic and find the thesis, which in a proposal asserts the solution. Bornstein identifies the topic in his title—“Fighting Bullying with Babies”—and asserts his thesis in paragraph 4:

Look also for topic sentences, particularly those that announce the parts of the proposal argument. Notice also any transitions and how they function. For example, all of the transitions in the following topic sentences (another, moreover, still, and furthermore) indicate items in a list. Other transitions you can expect in proposals signal causes or effects (because, as a result), exceptions (but), concessions (although), refutations (however), emphasis (more important), conclusions (then, therefore), and enumerations ( first, second). Here are the beginnings of several topic sentences from O’Malley’s essay:

Finally, if headings or visuals (such as flowcharts, graphs, tables, photographs, or cartoons) are included, determine how they contribute. Notice whether visuals are referred to in the text and whether they have titles or captions.