A Well-Presented Subject
A Well-Supported Causal Analysis
An Effective Response to Objections and Alternative Causes
A Clear, Logical Organization
Use the following to help you analyze and evaluate how writers of causal analyses use the genre’s basic features. The strategies they typically use to make their essays insightful and persuasive are illustrated below with examples from the readings in this chapter as well as sentence strategies you can experiment with later, as you write your own causal analysis.
A WELL-PRESENTED SUBJECT
Look first at the title and the opening paragraphs to see what the subject is and whether it is clearly and vividly established. For example, to establish the subject, a writer may cite statistics or provide graphic illustrations, as in these examples from readings in this chapter:
The exercise and fitness industry used to cater to a small, select group of hard-core athletes and bodybuilders. Now, physical fitness has an increasingly broad appeal to people of all ages, and the evidence can be seen everywhere. . . . Fitness club membership, according to the International Health, Racquet and Sportsclub Association (IHRSA), jumped from 20 million in 1991 to over 40 million in 2006. . . . It leapt another 10 percent to 50.2 million in 2010 (“U.S. Health Club Membership”). As of September 30, 2011, as many as 16 percent of Americans were members of a health club (“IHRSA”). (McClain, par. 1)
“Researchers have underestimated the powerful importance of the local environment on eating,” said Dr. Paul Rozin, a professor of psychology at the University of Pennsylvania, who studies food preferences. Give moviegoers an extra-large tub of popcorn instead of a container one size smaller and they will eat 45 to 50 percent more, as Dr. Brian Wansink, a professor of nutritional science and marketing at the University of Illinois, showed in one experiment. Even if the popcorn is stale, they will still eat 40 to 45 percent more. (Goode, par. 1)
Next, consider how the writer presents the subject to arouse readers’ curiosity. One common approach is to pose the subject directly or indirectly as a why question:
Why We Crave Horror Movies
When we [see] a horror movie, we are daring the nightmare. Why? Some of the reasons are simple and obvious. (King, title, par. 2)
Why did so many people come forward to save Hokget? . . . Why did they feel a single abandoned dog on a stateless ship was their problem? (Vedantam, par. 11)
Finally, determine how the writer frames or reframes the subject to lead readers to put aside widely accepted causes and consider new possibilities. Writers often use the following sentence patterns (as shown in the examples included below):
| EXAMPLE | Saving the dog . . . was an act of pure altruism, and a marker of the remarkable capacity human beings have to empathize with the plight of others. There are a series of disturbing questions, however. (Vedantam, pars. 6–7) |
| EXAMPLE | We all know why we should exercise, but why join a fitness club? Some of the answers may surprise you. (McClain, par. 4) |
A WELL-SUPPORTED CAUSAL ANALYSIS
Find where the writer identifies and discusses each possible cause, and note which one(s) the writer favors as being the most plausible (the most likely to have played a significant role in bringing about the effect) as well as the most interesting (possibly because the cause has been overlooked or underappreciated). Then assess the persuasiveness of the supporting evidence:
Examples
From giant sodas to supersize burgers to all-you-can-eat buffets, America’s approach to food can be summed up by one word: Big. (Goode, par. 1)
Research studies
Statistics
The evidence for what I am going to call the telescope effect comes from a series of fascinating experiments. (Vedantam, par. 14)
In 2006, the Pew Research Center found that 86 percent of adults surveyed thought that “exercising for fitness improves a person’s odds of a long and healthy life by ‘a lot.’ And, about six in ten believe that exercising has ‘a lot’ of impact on a person’s attractiveness” (Table 1). (McClain, par. 3)
Also check that the cause-effect argument makes sense—in particular, that the cause (or causes) could actually bring about the effect. Note whether either of these logical fallacies or errors of causal analysis have been made:
AN EFFECTIVE RESPONSE TO OBJECTIONS AND ALTERNATIVE CAUSES
Look for places where either objections to the writer’s favored causes or alternative causes that readers might prefer are brought up, and assess how well the writer responds to these objections and alternatives–either by conceding (accepting) or by refuting (arguing against) them.
A common response strategy is to mention the well-known, predictable causes first, but quickly put them aside to make room for a more detailed consideration of the writer’s preferred cause. Here are a couple of sentence strategies that you might look for in the reading selections (and use in your own writing), followed by examples of these strategies in context:
| EXAMPLE | Some of the reasons are simple and obvious. To show that we can, that we are not afraid, that we can ride this roller coaster. . . . We also go to re-establish our feelings of essential normality. . . . And we go to have fun. Ah, but this is where the ground starts to slope away, isn’t it? Because this is a very peculiar sort of fun, indeed. The fun comes from seeing others menaced—sometimes killed. (King, pars. 2–5) |
Concedes but puts aside
Introduces a surprising new cause
| EXAMPLE | Skepticism about this cause is also evident in research by Laura Brudzynski and William P. Ebben, published in the International Journal of Exercise Science, showing that “body image may act as a motivator to exercise” but can also be “a barrier to exercise,” particularly for those with a negative body image (15). (McClain, par. 6) |
Concedes but then refutes
| EXAMPLE | She and other experts think it is no coincidence that obesity began rising sharply in the United States at the same time that portion sizes started increasing. But cause and effect cannot be proved. And the food industry rejects the idea of a connection. . . . Still, in cultures where people are thinner, portion sizes appear to be smaller. Take France . . . (Goode, par. 7) |
Objection
Refutation
In this last example, Goode responds to the objection that correlation has been mistaken for causation. Notice how she goes on to refute this objection by using comparison and contrast.
A CLEAR, LOGICAL ORGANIZATION
Read to see if the writer provides cues to help readers follow the logic of the causal analysis. Essays speculating about causes tend to be rather complicated because the writer has to establish that the subject exists before presenting causes and arguing for those that are more likely to play an important role. (Notice that Sheila McClain spends her first three paragraphs establishing her subject.) So cues to help readers follow the argument are needed. Notice, for example, whether the writer asserts the preferred cause or causes in a thesis statement:
We all know why we should exercise, but why join a fitness club? Some of the answers may surprise you—such as to be part of a community, to reduce stress, to improve your body image, and simply to have fun. (McClain, par. 4)
Causes forecast
Notice, too, whether the writer repeats key terms or sentence structures from the forecasting statement in the essay’s topic sentences to emphasize that another cause, response to objections, or supporting example is coming. Here’s an example from “Why We Crave Horror Movies” by Stephen King:
| FORECASTING STATEMENT | Why? Some of the reasons are simple and obvious. To show that we can, that we are not afraid, that we can ride this roller coaster. (par. 2) |
| TOPIC SENTENCE | We also go to re-establish our feelings of essential normality. (par. 3) |
| TOPIC SENTENCE | And we go to have fun. (par. 4) |
Repeats sentence structure
By repeating the same subject (we) and an active verb (can, are, go), King helps readers identify each new cause.
Writers may also use parallel grammatical structures within a paragraph to help readers recognize a series of supporting examples. Consider this passage from “The Gorge-Yourself Environment” by Erica Goode:
Give moviegoers an extra-large tub of popcorn instead of a container one size smaller and they will eat 45 to 50 percent more. . . . Keep a tabletop in the office stocked with cookies and candy, and people will nibble their way through the workday. . . . Reduce prices or offer four-course meals instead of single tasty entrees, and diners will increase their consumption. (par. 1)
Command form of verb
Future form of verb
Each of these examples provides support for her claim that “environmental factors . . . can influence the amount the average person consumes” (par. 1). Other cues writers may provide to guide readers include the following: