abstract language Language that is general or nonspecific. See also concrete language.
active listening A multistep, focused, and purposeful process of gathering and evaluating information.
ad hominem argument A form of fallacious argument that targets a person instead of the issue at hand in an attempt to incite an audience’s dislike for that person.
advanced search (also called field searching) A search tool in most Internet search engines that targets specific search parameters to narrow search results.
after-dinner speech A speech that is likely to occur before, after, or during a formal dinner, a breakfast or lunch seminar, or other type of business, professional, or civic meeting.
agenda A document identifying the items to be accomplished during a meeting.
agora In ancient Greece, a public square or marketplace. See also forum.
alliteration The repetition of the same sounds, usually initial consonants, in two or more neighboring words or syllables.
allusion A figure of speech in which the speaker makes vague or indirect reference to people, historical events, or concepts to give deeper meaning to the message.
almanac A reference work that contains facts and statistics in many categories, including those that are related to historical, social, political, and religious subjects.
analogy An extended metaphor or simile that compares an unfamiliar concept or process with a more familiar one in order to help the listener understand the one that is unfamiliar.
anaphora A rhetorical device in which the speaker repeats a word or phrase at the beginning of successive phrases, clauses, or sentences.
anecdote A brief story of an interesting, humorous, or real-life incident that links back to the speaker’s theme.
antigroup roles Negative interpersonal roles of group members who focus on individual versus group needs. These needs are usually irrelevant to the task at hand and are not oriented toward maintenance of the group as a team.
antithesis A rhetorical device in which two ideas are set off in balanced (parallel) opposition to each other.
anxiety stop-time A technique for dealing with pre-performance anxiety by allowing the anxiety to present itself for a few minutes and then declaring time for confidence to step in to help complete practicing a speech.
appeal to tradition A fallacy of reasoning in which the speaker argues for the truth of a claim based solely on common practices in the past.
architecture design review Oral presentation with the dual goal of helping listeners visualize the design concept while also selling it.
argument A stated position, with support, for or against an idea or issue; contains the core elements of claim, evidence, and warrants.
arrangement (of the speech) The strategic process of deciding how to order speech points into a coherent and convincing pattern for your topic and audience.
articulation The clarity or forcefulness with which sounds are made, regardless of whether they are pronounced correctly.
asynchronous communication Communication in which interaction between speaker and receiver does not occur simultaneously. See also recorded presentation.
atlas A collection of maps, text, and accompanying charts and tables.
attitudes Our general evaluations of people, ideas, objects, or events.
audience analysis The process of gathering and analyzing demographic and psychological information about audience members.
audience-centered perspective An approach to speech preparation in which each phase of the speech preparation process—from selection and treatment of the speech topic to making decisions about organization, language, and method of delivery—is geared toward communicating a meaningful message to the audience.
audience segmentation Dividing a general audience into smaller groups, called target audiences, with similar characteristics, wants, and needs.
authoritative warrant A warrant that appeals to the credibility (ethos) that the audience assigns to the source of the evidence.
average A summary of a set of data according to its typical or average characteristics; may refer to the mean, median, or mode.
backstory The story that leads up to an event that listeners might find interesting; offering a backstory can enliven an informative speech, especially those about events.
bandwagoning A fallacious argument that presents itself as true because “general opinion” supports it.
begging the question A fallacious argument presented in such a way that it is necessarily true, even though no evidence has been presented.
beliefs The ways in which people perceive reality or determine the very existence or validity of something.
blog Short for “Weblog”; an online personal journal.
body language Facial expressions, eye behavior, gestures, and general body movement; audiences are sensitive to a speaker’s body language.
body (of speech) The part of the speech in which the speaker develops the main points intended to fulfill the speech purpose.
brainstorming A problem-solving technique, useful for developing speech topics, that involves the spontaneous generation of ideas. You can brainstorm by making lists, using word association, and mapping a topic, among other techniques.
brief example A single illustration of a point.
call to action A challenge to audience members to act in response to a speech, see the problem in a new way, change their beliefs about the problem, or change both their actions and their beliefs with respect to the problem; placed at the conclusion of a speech.
canned speech A speech used repeatedly and without sufficient adaptation to the rhetorical speech situation.
canons of rhetoric A classical approach to speechmaking in which the speaker divides a speech into five parts: invention, arrangement, style, memory, and delivery.
captive audience An audience required to attend the speech event. See also voluntary audience.
case conference An oral report prepared by health-care professionals evaluating a patient’s condition and outlining a treatment plan.
case study A detailed illustration of a real or hypothetical business situation.
causal (cause-effect) pattern of arrangement A pattern of organizing speech points in order, first of causes and then of effects or vice versa; it is used when the cause-effect relationship is well established.
central processing A mode of processing a persuasive message that involves thinking critically about the contents of the message and the strength and quality of the speaker’s arguments; described in the Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM) of Persuasion. People who seriously consider what the speaker’s message means to them are most likely to experience a relatively enduring change in thinking. See also peripheral processing.
channel The medium through which the speaker sends a message (i.e., sound waves, air waves, and electronic transmission).
chart A method of visually organizing complex information into compact form. Several different types of charts are helpful for speakers: flowcharts, organization charts, and tabular charts or tables.
cherry-picking Selectively presenting only those facts and statistics that buttress your point of view while ignoring competing data.
chronological pattern of arrangement A pattern of organizing speech points in a natural sequential order; it is used when describing a series of events in time or when the topic develops in line with a set pattern of actions or tasks.
claim The declaration of a state of affairs, in which a speaker attempts to prove something by providing evidence and reasons (warrants).
claim of fact An argument that focuses on whether something is or is not true or whether something will or will not happen.
claim of policy A claim that recommends that a specific course of action be taken, or approved, by an audience.
claim of value A claim that addresses issues of judgment.
classroom discussion presentation A presentation in which the speaker presents a brief overview of the topic under discussion and introduces a series of questions to guide students through the topic.
cliché An overused expression such as “works like a dog.”
clinical case study A presentation delivered in nursing and allied health contexts; provides medical personnel with a detailed analysis of a person or group with a particular disease or condition and reviews plans for treatment.
closed-ended question A question designed to elicit a small range of specific answers supplied by the interviewer. See also open-ended question.
co-culture A community of people whose perceptions and beliefs differ significantly from those of other groups within the larger culture.
code-switching The selective use of casual language, dialect, a second language, or even slang within a speech.
colleagues within the field audience An audience of persons who share the speaker’s knowledge of the general field under question but who may not be familiar with the specific topic under discussion.
collective mind A state of mind adopted by group members in which they determine that the group communication will be careful, consistent, and conscientious.
collectivist culture A culture that tends to emphasize the needs and desires of the larger group rather than those of the individual. See also individualist culture.
colloquial expression An informal expression, often with regional variations of speech.
common knowledge Information that is likely to be known by many people and is therefore in the public domain; the source of such information need not be cited in a speech.
communication ethics Our ethical responsibilities when seeking influence over other people and for which there are positive and negative, or “right” or “wrong,” choices of action.
comparative advantage pattern of arrangement A pattern of organizing speech points so that the speaker’s viewpoint or proposal is shown to be superior to one or more alternative viewpoints or proposals.
conclusion (of speech) The part of the speech in which the speaker reiterates the speech theme, summarizes main points, and leaves the audience with something to think about or act upon.
concrete language Nouns and verbs that convey specific and tangible (as opposed to abstract) language. See also abstract language.
connotative meaning The individual associations that different people bring to bear on a word.
consequentialist ethics An approach to ethical standards that suggests that it is the outcome or consequence of our conduct that ultimately determines its rightness.
conversation stoppers Speech that discredits, demeans, and/or belittles those with whom one disagrees.
coordinate points Ideas that are given the same weight in an outline and are aligned with one another; thus Main Point II is coordinate with Main Point I.
coordination and subordination The logical placement of ideas relative to their importance to one another. Ideas that are coordinate are given equal weight. An idea that is subordinate to another is given relatively less weight.
copyright A legal protection afforded original creators of literary or artistic works, including works classified as literary, musical, dramatic, choreographic, pictorial, graphic, sculptural, audiovisual, sound recording, or architectural.
crisis-response presentation Presentation in which the speaker seeks to reassure an organization’s various audiences (“publics”) and restore its credibility in the face of potentially reputation-damaging situations.
critical and conflicted audience Audience members whose attitudes are critical of or conflicted about the speaker’s topic.
critical thinking The ability to evaluate claims on the basis of well-supported reasons.
cultural intelligence The willingness to learn about other cultures and gradually reshape your thinking and behavior in response to what you’ve learned.
cultural norms A group’s rules for behavior; attempts to persuade people to do things contrary to their cultural norms will usually fail.
cultural premises A group’s shared beliefs and values about personal identity and relationships; persuasive attempts that challenge cultural premises will usually fail.
culture The language, beliefs, values, norms, behaviors, and even material objects that are passed from one generation to the next.
debate An oral presentation in which two individuals or groups consider or argue an issue from opposing viewpoints.
decoding The process of interpreting a message.
deductive reasoning Reasoning from a general condition to a specific instance. See also inductive reasoning and syllogism.
deep Web The large portion of the Web that general search engines cannot access because the information is licensed and/or fee-based; libraries subscribe to many such fee-based databases that can be accessed through their portals.
defensive listening A poor listening behavior in which the listener reacts defensively to a speaker’s message.
definition by etymology (word origin) Defining something by providing an account of a word’s history.
definition by example Defining something by providing an example of it.
definition by negation Defining something by explaining what it is not.
definition by synonym Defining something by comparing it with another term that has an equivalent meaning. For example: A friend is a comrade or a buddy.
deliberative oratory In ancient Greece, speech addressing legislative or political policy issues.
delivery The vocal and nonverbal behavior that a speaker uses in a public speech; one of the five canons of rhetoric.
delivery cues Brief reminder notes or prompts placed in the speaking outline; can refer to transitions, timing, speaking rate and volume, presentation aids, quotations, statistics, and difficult-to-pronounce or remember names or words.
demagogue An unethical speaker who relies heavily on irrelevant emotional appeals to short-circuit listeners’ rational decision-making process.
demographics Statistical characteristics of a given population. Characteristics typically considered in the analysis of audience members include age, gender, ethnic or cultural background, socioeconomic status (including income, occupation, and education), and religious and political affiliation.
denotative meaning The literal or dictionary definition of a word.
devil’s advocacy Arguing for the sake of raising issues or concerns about the idea under discussion.
diagram A schematic drawing that explains how something works or how it is constructed or operated; used to simplify and clarify complicated procedures, explanations, and operations.
dialectical inquiry Devil’s advocacy (see above) that goes a step further by proposing a countersolution to an idea.
dialect A distinctive way of speaking associated with a particular region or social group.
dialogic communication The sharing of ideas and open discussion through civil discourse.
dignity The feeling that one is worthy, honored, or respected as a person.
direct quotation A statement quoted verbatim, or word for word, from a source. Direct quotations should always be acknowledged in a speech. See also paraphrase.
disinformation The deliberate falsification of information.
domain The suffix at the end of a Web address that tells you the nature of the website: educational (.edu), government (.gov), military (.mil), nonprofit organization (.org), business/commercial (.com), or network (.net). A tilde (~) in the address usually indicates that it is a personal page rather than part of an institutional website. Understanding the domain can help you assess the credibility of a site.
dyadic communication Communication between two people, as in a conversation.
effective delivery The skillful application of natural conversational behavior to a speech in a way that is relaxed, enthusiastic, and direct.
either-or fallacy A fallacious argument that is stated in terms of two alternatives only, even though there may be multiple ways of viewing the issue.
elaboration likelihood model of persuasion (ELM) A model of persuasion that states that people process persuasive messages by one of two routes—either central processing or peripheral processing—depending on their degree of involvement in the message.
elocutionary movement An approach to public speaking in which speechmaking is regarded as a type of performance, much like acting.
encoding The process of organizing a message, choosing words and sentence structure, and verbalizing the message.
encyclopedia A reference work that summarizes knowledge found in original form elsewhere and provides an overview of subjects.
engineering design review An oral presentation providing information on the results of a design project.
enthymeme See informal syllogism.
epideictic oratory In ancient Greece, speech addressing special occasions, such as celebrations and funerals.
epiphora A rhetorical device in which the speaker repeats a word or phrase at the end of successive statements.
ethical appeal An attempt to persuade audience members by appealing to speaker credibility. See also authoritative warrant and ethos.
ethics The rules or standards of moral conduct, or how people should act toward one another. In terms of public speaking, ethics refers to the responsibilities speakers have toward both their audience and themselves. It also encompasses the responsibilities that listeners have toward speakers.
ethnocentrism The belief that the ways of one’s own culture are superior to those of other cultures. Ethnocentric speakers act as though everyone shares their point of view and points of reference, whether or not this is in fact the case.
ethos The Greek word for “character.” According to the ancient Greek rhetorician Aristotle, audiences listen to and trust speakers if they exhibit competence (as demonstrated by the speaker’s grasp of the subject matter) and good moral character.
eulogy A speech whose purpose is to celebrate and commemorate the life of someone while consoling those who are left behind; typically delivered by close friends and family members.
evaluation research presentation An oral presentation reporting on the effectiveness of programs developed to address various issues; frequently delivered in social scientific fields.
evidence Supporting material that provides grounds for belief; a core component of an argument. See also claims and warrants.
evidence-based practice (EBP) presentation A presentation that reviews the scientific literature on a clinical problem, critically evaluates the findings, and suggests best practices for standards of care.
example (as form of support) An illustration in a speech whose purpose is to aid understanding by making ideas, items, or events more concrete and by clarifying and amplifying meaning. See also extended example and hypothetical example.
expectancy values theory A theory of persuasion developed by Icek Aizen and Martin Fishbein positing that audience members act according to the perceived costs and benefits (“value”) associated with a particular action; useful when developing a persuasive speech targeting behavior.
expert or insider audience An audience composed of individuals who have an intimate knowledge of the topic, issue, product, or idea being discussed.
expert testimony Any findings, eyewitness accounts, or opinions by professionals who are trained to evaluate or report on a given topic; a form of supporting material.
extended example Multifaceted illustrations of the idea, item, or event being described, thereby getting the point across and reiterating it effectively.
external listening distraction Anything in the environment that distracts listeners from receiving the speaker’s message.
fabrication The making up of information, such as falsifying data or experiments or claiming a source where none exists.
fact book See almanac.
facts Documented occurrences, including actual events, dates, times, places, and people involved.
fair use doctrine Legal guidelines permitting the limited use of copyrighted works without permission for the purposes of scholarship teaching and research, among other uses.
fairness One of four “ground rules” of ethical speaking, fairness is the act of making a genuine effort to see all sides of an issue and to be open-minded.
faulty analogy An inaccurate or misleading comparison suggesting that because two things are similar in some ways, they are necessarily similar in others.
fear appeal A persuasive appeal to audience members that deliberately arouses their fear and anxiety.
feedback Audience response to a message, which can be conveyed both verbally and nonverbally through gestures. Feedback from the audience often indicates whether a speaker’s message has been understood.
field study presentation A type of oral presentation typically delivered in the context of science-related disciplines, in which the speaker provides (1) an overview of field research, (2) the methods used in the research, (3) an analysis of the results of the research, and (4) a time line indicating how the research results will be used going forward.
“fighting words” Speech that provokes people to violence; such speech is not protected under the First Amendment.
“fight or flight response” The body’s automatic physiological reactions in response to a threatening or fear-inducing event, including public speaking.
figures of speech Expressions, such as metaphors, similes, analogies, and hyperbole, in which words are used in a nonliteral fashion.
First Amendment The amendment to the U.S. Constitution that guarantees freedom of speech (“Congress shall make no law . . . abridging the freedom of speech . . . ”).
fixed-alternative question A closed-ended question that contains a limited choice of answers, such as “Yes,” “No,” or “Sometimes.”
flip chart A large (27–34 inches) pad of paper on which a speaker can illustrate speech points.
flowchart A diagram that shows step-by-step progression through a procedure, relationship, or process.
font A set of type of one size and face.
forensic oratory In ancient Greece, speech addressing legal matters, such as the settlement of disputes.
forum In ancient Rome, a public space in which people gathered to deliberate about the issues of the day. See also agora and public forum.
free speech The right to be free from unreasonable constraints on expression.
frequency A count of the number of times something occurs or appears.
full-sentence transition A signal to listeners, in the form of a declarative sentence, that the speaker is turning to another topic.
gender Social and psychological sense of self as male or female.
gender-neutral language Language that avoids the use of third-person generic masculine pronouns (his, he) in favor of inclusive pronouns such as his or her, he or she, we, ours, you, your, or other gender-neutral terms.
general case See major premise.
general speech purpose A statement of the broad speech purpose that answers the question “Why am I speaking on this topic for this particular audience and occasion?” Usually the general speech goal is to inform, to persuade, or to mark a special occasion. See also specific speech purpose.
generational identity The collective cultural identity of a generation or a cohort.
graph A graphical representation of numerical data. Graphs neatly illustrate relationships among components or units and demonstrate trends. Four major types of graphs are line graphs, bar graphs, pie graphs, and pictograms.
group activity presentation An oral presentation that introduces students to an activity and provides them with clear directions for its completion.
groupthink The tendency of a group to accept information and ideas without subjecting them to critical analysis. Groupthink results from strong feelings of loyalty and unity within a group and can lead to a decline in the quality of the group’s decisions.
hackneyed language Language that is poorly crafted and lacking in freshness.
handheld (or fixed) microphone A microphone that is attached by a cord to an electrical power source.
handout Printed information that is either impractical to give to the audience in another manner or is intended to be kept by audience members after a presentation.
hasty generalization A fallacy of reasoning in which the speaker attempts to support a claim by asserting that a particular piece of evidence (an isolated case) is true for all individuals or conditions concerned.
hate speech Any offensive communication—verbal or nonverbal—directed against people’s racial, ethnic, religious, gender, disability, or other characteristics. Racist, sexist, or ageist slurs, gay bashing, and cross burnings are all forms of hate speech.
heckler’s veto Speech meant to drown out a speaker’s message; such speech silences freedom of expression.
hierarchy of needs A classic model of human action developed by Abraham Maslow built on the principle that people are motivated to act on the basis of needs.
high-uncertainty avoidance culture One of five “value dimensions,” or major cultural patterns, that are significant across all cultures to varying degrees; identified by Geert Hofstede.
hostile audience or one that strongly disagrees One of four potential types of audiences the persuasive speaker may encounter.
hyperbole A figure of speech in which the speaker uses obvious exaggeration to drive home a point.
hypothetical example An illustration of something that could happen in the future if certain things occurred. See also example and extended example.
identification A feeling of commonality with another; when appropriate, effective speakers attempt to foster a sense of identification between themselves and audience members.
imagery Colorful and concrete words that appeal to the senses. See also analogy, metaphor, and simile.
indentation In an outline, the plotting of speech points to indicate their weight relative to one another; subordinate points are placed underneath and to the right of higher-order points.
individual debate format A debate in which one person takes a side against another person.
individualistic culture A culture that tends to emphasize personal identity and the needs of the individual rather than those of the group, upholding such values as individual achievement and decision making. See also collectivist culture.
inductive reasoning Reasoning from specific instances to a general condition. See also deductive reasoning.
informal syllogism (also called an enthymeme) states either a general case or a specific case but not both. The case not stated is assumed to be understood because speaker and audience share knowledge of it, either through common sense, shared values, or universal principles.
information Data set in a context for relevance.
informative speech Speech providing new information, new insights, or new ways of thinking about a topic. The general purpose of informative speaking is to increase the audience’s understanding and awareness of a topic.
inoculation effect A theory of persuasive speaking in which a speaker anticipates and addresses counterarguments. The theory is modeled on the biological principle of inducing resistance through exposure to small quantities of a harmful substance.
integrity The quality of being incorruptible, of being able to avoid compromise for the sake of personal expediency.
intellectual property The ownership of an individual’s creative expression. See also copyright.
internal listening distraction Thoughts and feelings, both positive and negative, that intrude on our attention as we attempt to listen to a speaker.
internal preview An extended transition used within the body of a speech that alerts audience members to ensuing speech content.
internal summary An extended transition that draws together important ideas before proceeding to another speech point.
interpersonal roles Types of roles or styles of interacting in a group that facilitate group interaction.
interview A type of communication conducted for the purpose of gathering information. Interviews can be conducted one on one or in a group.
intonation The rising and falling of voice pitch across phrases and sentences. Intonation is what distinguishes a question from a statement.
introduction (of speech) The first part of a speech, in which the speaker establishes the speech purpose and its relevance to the audience and previews the topic and the main points.
invective Abusive speech; accusatory and attacking speech.
invention The classical rhetorical term for the process of discovering the types of evidence and arguments you will use to make your case to an audience; one of the five canons of rhetoric.
irony A figure of speech in which the speaker uses humor, satire, or sarcasm to suggest a meaning other than the one that is actually being expressed.
jargon Specialized terminology developed within a given endeavor or field of study.
key-word outline The briefest of the three forms of outlines, the key-word outline uses the smallest possible units of understanding associated with a specific point to outline the main and supporting points. See also phrase outline and sentence outline.
keywords Words and phrases that describe the main concepts of topics. Internet search engines index information by keywords tagged within documents.
lavalier microphone A microphone that attaches to a lapel or a collar.
lay audience An audience of individuals who have no specialized knowledge of the general field related to a speaker’s topic or of the topic itself.
lay testimony Testimony by a nonexpert; a form of supporting material.
lazy speech A poor speech habit in which the speaker fails to properly articulate words.
lecture An informative speech prepared for an audience of student learners.
library portal An entry point into a large collection of research and reference information that has been selected and reviewed by librarians.
listening The conscious act of receiving, constructing meaning from, and responding to spoken and nonverbal messages.
listening distraction Anything that competes for a listener’s attention; the source of the distraction may be internal or external.
logical fallacy A statement that is either false or erroneous or is based on an invalid or deceptive line of reasoning. See also ad hominem argument, appeal to tradition, bandwagoning, begging the question, either-or fallacy, hasty generalization, non sequitur,red herring fallacy, and slippery slope.
logos The Greek rhetorician Aristotle used this term to refer to persuasive appeals to the audience’s reason and logic.
low-uncertainty avoidance culture One of five “value dimensions” or major cultural patterns that are significant across all cultures to varying degrees; identified by Geert Hofstede. See also high-uncertainty avoidance culture.
main points Statements that express the key ideas and major themes of a speech. Their function is to make claims in support of the thesis. See also subordinate points.
major premise A general case; used in syllogisms and enthymemes. See also minor premise.
malapropism The inadvertent use of a word or phrase in place of one that sounds like it.
mass communication Communication that occurs between a speaker and a large audience of unknown people. The receivers of the message are not present with the speaker, or they are part of such an immense crowd that there can be little or no interaction between speaker and listeners. Television, radio news broadcasts, and mass rallies are examples of mass communication.
mean The sum of the scores divided by the number of scores; the arithmetic (or computed) average.
median A type of average that represents the centermost score in a distribution; the point above and below which 50 percent of the scores fall.
memory One of five parts of the classical canons of rhetoric; refers to the practice of the speech until it can be artfully delivered.
message The content of the communication process—thoughts and ideas put into meaningful expressions. A message can be expressed both verbally (through the sentences and points of a speech) and nonverbally (through eye contact, body language, and gestures).
metaphor A figure of speech used to make an implicit comparison without the use of like or as (e.g., “Love is a rose”). See also simile.
methods/procedure presentation An oral presentation describing and sometimes demonstrating an experimental or mathematical process, including the conditions under which that process can be applied; frequently delivered in scientific and mathematical fields.
minor premise A specific case; used in syllogisms and enthymemes. See also major premise.
misinformation Information that is false.
mixed audience An audience composed of a combination of individuals, some of whom have expert knowledge of the field and topic while others have no specialized knowledge.
mixed metaphor A comparison that inappropriately juxtaposes two unlike images or expressions, often clichéd, such as “He went off the deep end like a bull in a china shop.”
mode A type of average that represents the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution.
model A three-dimensional, scale-size representation of an object such as a building.
Monroe’s motivated sequence See motivated sequence pattern of arrangement.
motivated sequence pattern of arrangement A five-step process of persuasion developed by Alan Monroe.
motivational warrant A warrant that uses the needs, desires, emotions, and values of audience members as the basis for accepting evidence in support of a claim.
motive A predisposition to behave in certain ways; persuading audience members requires paying attention to what motivates them.
multimedia A single production that combines several types of media (stills, sound, video, text, and data).
multimedia effect A learning principle that suggests that we learn better from words and pictures than from words alone, provided that the aids complement, or add to, the information rather than simply match the spoken point.
mumbling Slurring words together at a very low level of volume and pitch so that they are barely audible.
narrative A story; it can be based on personal experiences or imaginary incidents.
narrative pattern of arrangement A pattern of organizing speech points so that the speech unfolds as a story, with characters, plot, setting, and vivid imagery. In practice, this pattern often is combined with other organizational patterns.
noise Anything that interferes with the communication process between a speaker and an audience, so that the message cannot be understood; noise can derive from external sources in the environment or from internal psychological factors.
non sequitur (“does not follow”). An argument in which the conclusion does not connect to the reasoning.
nonverbal communication Communication other than the spoken word; includes body language, voice, and appearance.
one-sided message An argument in which the speaker does not acknowledge opposing views. See also two-sided message.
online presentation A presentation delivered via the Internet; can include both a real-time presentation and a recorded presentation.
onomatopoeia A figure of speech in which the speaker imitates natural sounds in word form to add vividness to a speech (e.g., “The rain dripped a steady plop, plop, plop”).
open-ended question A survey or interview question designed to allow respondents to elaborate as much as they want See also closed-ended question.
operational definition Defining something by describing what it does (e.g., “A computer is something that processes information”).
oral citation An oral acknowledgment by a speaker of the source of speech material that is derived from other people’s ideas.
oral style The use of language that is simpler, more repetitious, more rhythmic, and more interactive than written language; effective speeches use oral style.
oratory In classical terms, the art of public speaking.
outlining The physical process of plotting speech points on the page in hierarchical order of importance.
overgeneralization An attempt to support a claim by asserting that a particular piece of evidence is true for everyone concerned.
pandering To identify with values that are not your own in order to win approval from an audience.
panel discussion An oral presentation in which a group of three to nine people discuss a topic in the presence of an audience and under the direction of a moderator.
parallelism The arrangement of words, phrases, or sentences in similar grammatical and stylistic form. Parallel structure can help speakers emphasize important ideas in a speech.
paraphrase A restatement of someone else’s statements or written work that alters the form or phrasing but not the substance of that person’s ideas. See also direct quotation.
pathos The Greek rhetorician Aristotle used this term for appeals to an audience’s emotions. Such appeals can get the audience’s attention and stimulate a desire to act but must be used ethically.
pauses Strategic elements of a speech used to enhance meaning by providing a type of punctuation emphasizing a point, drawing attention to a key thought, or allowing listeners a moment to contemplate.
performance anxiety A form of public speaking anxiety (PSA) that occurs the moment a speaker begins to deliver a speech. See also preparation anxiety.
periodical A regularly published magazine, journal, or newspaper.
peripheral processing A mode of processing a persuasive message that does not consider the quality of the speaker’s message but is influenced by such noncontent issues as the speaker’s appearance or reputation, certain slogans or one-liners, or obvious attempts to manipulate emotions; described in the Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM) of Persuasion. Peripheral processing of messages occurs when people lack the motivation or the ability to pay close attention to the issues. See also central processing.
personification A figure of speech in which the speaker endows an abstract idea or inanimate object with human qualities (e.g., “Computers have become important members of our family”).
persons with disabilities (PWD) Persons whose physical or mental impairments substantially limits their major life activities; sensitivity to PWD is important for the public speaker.
persuasion The process of influencing others’ attitudes, beliefs, values, and behavior.
persuasive appeals See proofs.
persuasive speaking Speech whose general purpose is to effect some degree of change in the audience’s beliefs, attitudes, values, or behavior.
persuasive speech See persuasive speaking.
phrase outline A delivery outline that uses a partial construction of the sentence form of each point instead of using complete sentences that present precise wording for each point. See also key-word outline and sentence outline.
pictogram A type of graph that illustrates comparisons in picture form. The pictures represent numerical units and are drawn to relate the items being compared.
pitch The range of sounds from high to low (or vice versa). Pitch is determined by the number of vibrations per unit of time; the more vibrations per unit (also called frequency), the higher the pitch.
plagiarism The act of using other people’s ideas or words without acknowledging the source.
podcast A digital audio recording of a presentation captured and stored in a form accessible via the Internet.
policy recommendation report An oral presentation that offers recommendations for solving a problem or addressing an issue.
poster session A format for the visual presentation of posters, arranged on freestanding boards, containing a display summarizing a study or an issue for viewing by participants in various educational contexts. The speaker prepares brief remarks and remains on hand to answer questions as needed.
power distance As developed by Geert Hofstede, a measure of the extent to which a culture values social equality versus tradition and authority.
preparation anxiety A form of public speaking anxiety (PSA) that arises when the speaker begins to prepare for a speech, at which point he or she might feel overwhelmed at the amount of time and planning required. See also performance anxiety.
pre-performance anxiety A form of public speaking anxiety (PSA) that occurs when the speaker begins to rehearse a speech.
pre-preparation anxiety A form of public speaking anxiety (PSA) that occurs the moment speakers learn they must give a speech.
presentation aids Objects, models, pictures, graphs, charts, video, audio, or multimedia, used alone or in combination to illustrate speech points.
presentational speaking A type of oral presentation in which individuals or groups deliver reports addressing colleagues, clients, or customers within a business or professional environment.
preview statement Statement included in the introduction of a speech in which the speaker alerts the audience to the main speech points.
primacy effect Psychological principle in which listeners have a better recall of the main points made at the beginning of a speech than of those made later (unless the ideas made later are far more striking than the others).
primary source Firsthand accounts or direct evidence of events, objects, or people. See also secondary source.
problem-cause-solution pattern of arrangement A pattern of organizing speech points so that they demonstrate (1) the nature of the problem, (2) reasons for the problem, (3) unsatisfactory solutions, and (4) proposed solutions.
problem-solution pattern of arrangement A pattern of organizing speech points so that they demonstrate the nature and significance of a problem first, and then provide justification for a proposed solution.
productive conflict A form of group conflict in which questions are clarified, ideas are challenged, counterexamples are presented, worst-case scenarios are considered, and proposals are reformulated.
program evaluation presentation A report on a program’s mission with a description of its accomplishments and how they were measured, and conclusions on how well or poorly the program has met is stated objectives
progress report A report that updates clients or principals on developments in an ongoing project.
pronunciation The formation of word sounds.
proof (also called rhetorical proof) In classical terms, a persuasive appeal based on ethos, pathos, or logos, or some combination of these.
prop Any live or inanimate object used by a speaker as a presentation aid.
propaganda Information represented in such a way as to provoke a desired response.
proposal presentation A type of business or professional presentation in which the speaker provides information needed for decisions related to modifying or adopting a product, procedure, or policy.
prototype A model of a design.
public discourse Open conversation or discussion in a public forum.
public domain Bodies of work, including publications and processes, available for public use without permission; not protected by copyright or patent.
public forum Any space (physical or virtual) in which people gather to voice their ideas about public issues.
public speaking A type of communication in which the speaker delivers a message with a specific purpose to an audience of people who are physically present during the delivery of the speech. Public speaking always includes a speaker who has a reason for speaking, an audience that gives the speaker its attention, and a message that is meant to accomplish a purpose.
public speaking anxiety (PSA) Fear or anxiety associated with a speaker’s actual or anticipated communication to an audience.
qualitative research Research with an emphasis on observing, describing, and interpreting behavior.
quality improvement proposal A type of presentation delivered by persons in the allied health professions in which the speaker recommends the adoption of a health practice or policy.
quantitative research Research with an emphasis on statistical measurement.
questionnaire A written survey designed to gather information from a large pool of respondents. See also open- and closed-ended questions.
real-time presentation A presentation broadcast at the time of delivery via the Internet; real-time presentations connect the presenter and audience live and at the same time. See also synchronous communication.
reasoning Drawing inferences or conclusions from evidence.
receiver The recipient (an individual or a group) of a source’s message.
recency effect Psychological principle in which listeners have a better recall of the most recent points in the speech (unless the ideas made earlier are far more striking than the others).
reckless disregard for the truth Statements made with the awareness that they are false; this form of speech is illegal. See also slander.
recorded presentation A presentation in which speaker and audience are separated by time and space and the presentation is stored and played back from a digital medium. See also asynchronous communication.
red herring fallacy A fallacy of reasoning in which the speaker relies on irrelevant information to support an argument.
refutation pattern of arrangement A pattern of organizing speech points in which each main point addresses and then refutes (disproves) an opposing claim to the speaker’s position.
request for funding presentation An oral presentation that provides evidence that a project, proposal, or design idea is worth funding; it is frequently delivered in such technical fields as engineering, computer science, and architecture.
research overview presentation A type of oral presentation in which the speaker provides the context and the background for a research question or hypothesis that will form the basis of an impending undertaking; it is typically delivered within the context of scientific and mathematical disciplines.
research presentation (oral scientific presentation) An oral presentation describing original research undertaken by the speaker, either alone or as part of a team; it is frequently delivered in scientific and social scientific fields.
respect To feel or show deferential regard. For the ethical speaker, respect ranges from addressing audience members as unique human beings to refraining from rudeness and other forms of personal attack.
responsibility A charge, trust, or duty for which one is accountable.
“restate-forecast” transition A type of transition in which the speaker restates the point just covered and previews the point to be covered next.
review of academic article Oral presentation in which the speaker reports on an article or a study published in a scholarly journal.
review of the literature presentation An oral presentation in which the speaker reviews the body of research related to a given topic or issue and offers conclusions about the topic based on this research; it is frequently delivered in social scientific fields.
rhetoric The practice of oratory, or public speaking. More broadly, the term has multiple meanings, all of which relate to an aspect of human communication.
rhetorical device A technique of language to achieve a desired effect.
rhetorical question A question that does not invite an actual response but is used to make the audience think.
rhetorical situation The circumstances that call for a public response and for the speech itself; in broad terms, consideration of the audience, occasion, and overall speech situation when planning a speech.
roast A humorous tribute to a person, one in which a series of speakers jokingly poke fun at the individual being honored.
rules-based ethics An approach to ethical standards that focuses on our duty to do what is inherently right, as established in widely accepted moral rules or norms.
rules of engagement Standard of conduct for communicating with others in the public arena, including speaking the truth, listening, and responding civilly.
sales presentation (sales pitch) A type of oral presentation that attempts to lead a potential buyer to purchase a service or product described by the presenter.
sans serif typeface A typeface that is blocklike and linear and is designed without tiny strokes or flourishes at the top or bottom of each letter. See also serif typeface.
scale question A closed-ended question that measures the respondent’s level of agreement or disagreement with specific issues.
scanning A technique for creating eye contact with audiences; the speaker moves his or her gaze across an audience from one listener to another and from one section to another, pausing to gaze briefly at individual listeners.
screencast (also called video screen capture) A video recording (“capture”) of whatever is on a computer screen that allows the presenter to show all of the actions that are happening on the screen while he or she narrates.
secondary source Analysis or commentary about things not directly observed or created; news, commentary, analysis, and scholarship found in books, articles, and a myriad of sources other than the original. See also primary source.
selective perception A psychological principle that posits that listeners pay attention selectively to certain messages and ignore others.
sentence outline An outline in which each main and supporting point is stated in sentence form; generally used for working outlines. See also key-word outline and phrase outline.
serif typeface Typefaces that include small flourishes, or strokes, at the top and bottom of each letter. See also sans serif typeface.
sermon A speech of inspiration given in a religious context.
service learning presentation Presentation in which students report on how they helped to address a need or problem in a community agency or nonprofit organization.
shared meaning The mutual understanding of a message between speaker and audience.
shift report Oral report by health care workers that concisely relays patient status and needs to incoming caregivers.
signposts Conjunctions or phrases, such as “Next,” “First,” and “Second,” that indicate transitions between supporting points.
simile A figure of speech used to compare one thing with another by using the word like or as (e.g., “He works like a dog”). See also metaphor.
six-by-six rule Rule of design suggesting having no more than six words in a line and six lines or bullet points per slide or other kind of visual aid.
slander Defamatory speech.
slippery slope A logical fallacy in which one instance of an event is offered as leading to a series of events or actions.
small group A group that consists of between three and twenty people as opposed to a large public audience.
small group communication Communication involving a small number of people who can see and speak directly with one another, as in a business meeting.
social agenda–setting In a special occasion speech, a type of speech purpose whose goal is to establish or reinforce the goals and values of the group sponsoring the event.
social news site(s) Websites dedicated to specific kinds of news or entertainment in which users can share stories, articles, and video (e.g., BuzzFeed).
socioeconomic status (SES) A cluster of demographic characteristics of audience members, including income, occupation, and education.
source The source, or sender, is the person who creates a message. The speaker transforms ideas and thoughts into messages and sends them to a receiver, or an audience.
source qualifier A brief description of the source’s qualifications to address the topic (e.g., “Pulitzer-Prize–winning author,” “researcher at the Mayo Clinic”).
source reliability The qualities that determine the value of a source, such as the author’s background and reputation, the reputation of the publication, the source of the data, and how recent the reference is.
spatial pattern of arrangement A pattern of organizing main points in order of their physical proximity or direction relative to each other; it is used when the purpose of a speech is to describe or explain the physical arrangement of a place, a scene, or an object.
speaker credibility The quality that reveals that a speaker has a good grasp of the subject, displays sound reasoning skills, is honest and unmanipulative, and is genuinely interested in the welfare of audience members; a modern version of ethos.
speaking extemporaneously A type of delivery that falls somewhere between impromptu and written or memorized deliveries. Speakers delivering an extemporaneous speech prepare well and practice in advance, giving full attention to all facets of the speech—content, arrangement, and delivery. Instead of memorizing or writing the speech word for word, they speak from a key-word outline or phrase outline.
speaking from manuscript A style of delivery in which the speaker reads the speech verbatim—that is, from a prepared written text (either on paper or on a TelePrompTer) containing the entire speech.
speaking from memory A type of delivery in which the speaker puts the entire speech, word for word, into writing and then commits it to memory.
speaking impromptu A type of delivery that is unpracticed, spontaneous, or improvised.
speaking outline A delivery outline to be used when practicing and actually presenting a speech.
speaking rate The pace at which a speech is delivered. The typical public speech occurs at a rate slightly less than 120 words per minute.
special occasion speech A speech whose general purpose is to entertain, celebrate, commemorate, inspire, or set a social agenda.
specific case See minor premise.
specific speech purpose A statement of precisely what you want the audience to gain from the speech: “To inform (or persuade) my audience about the factors to consider when purchasing an electric car.” See also general speech purpose.
speculative claim A type of claim of fact that addresses questions for which answers are not yet available.
speech codes University regulations prohibiting expressions on campus that would be constitutionally protected in society at large.
speech of acceptance A speech made in response to receiving an award. Its purpose is to express gratitude for the honor bestowed on the speaker.
speech of inspiration A speech whose purpose is to inspire or motivate the audience to positively consider, reflect on, and sometimes even act on the speaker’s words.
speech of introduction A short speech defined by two goals: to prepare or “warm up” audience members for the main speaker and to motivate them to listen to what that speaker has to say.
speech of presentation A speech whose purpose is twofold: to communicate the meaning of an award and to explain why the recipient is receiving it.
staff report A report that informs managers and other employees of new developments relating to personnel that affect them and their work.
statistic Quantified evidence; data that measures the size or magnitude of something, demonstrates trends, or shows relationships with the purpose of summarizing information, demonstrating proof, and making points memorable.
stereotype A generalization about an apparent characteristic of a group, culture, or ethnicity that falsely claims to define all of its members.
story See narrative.
style The specific word choices and rhetorical devices (techniques of language) speakers use to express their ideas and achieve their speech purpose.
subject guide A collection of article databases, reference works, website, and other resources for a particular subject.
subject heading A term used to describe and group related material in a library catalog, database, or subject guide.
subordinate points Ideas subordinate to others that are thus given relatively less weight. In an outline, they are indicated by their indentation below the more important points.
substantive warrant A warrant that relies on factual evidence to link a claim to evidence. See also warrant by analogy and warrant by cause.
summary (of supporting material) Brief overview of someone else’s ideas, opinions, or theories. See also direct quotation and paraphrase.
supporting material Examples, narratives, testimony, facts, and statistics that support the speech thesis and form the speech.
supporting points Information (examples, narratives, testimony, and facts and statistics) that clarifies, elaborates, and verifies the speaker’s assertions.
syllogism A set of propositions, or statements to be proved, that lead to a conclusion; consists of a three-part argument of a general case or major premise, a specific case or minor premise, and a conclusion. See also deductive reasoning.
sympathetic audience An audience that already shares much agreement with the speaker; one of four types of potential audiences that persuasive speakers may encounter.
symposium A formal meeting at which various speakers deliver short speeches on different aspects of the same topic.
synchronous communication Communication in which people exchange messages simultaneously, in real time. See also real-time presentation.
table A systematic grouping of data or numerical information in column format.
talking head A speaker who remains static, standing stiffly behind a podium, and so resembles a televised shot of a speaker’s head and shoulders.
target audience Those individuals within the broader audience who are most likely to be influenced in the direction the speaker seeks.
task roles Types of roles that directly relate to the accomplishment of the objectives and missions of a group. Examples include “recording secretary” and “moderator.”
team debate format A debate in which a team of two or more people oppose a second team, with each person having a speaking role.
team presentation A type of oral presentation prepared and delivered by a group of three or more people.
TelePrompTer A device that contains a magnified script of a speech; it is commonly used when a speaker’s remarks are televised.
testimony Firsthand findings, eyewitness accounts, and opinions by people, both lay (nonexpert) and expert.
theoretical research presentation An oral presentation focusing on studies that attempt to analyze and explain a phenomenon; frequently delivered in social scientific fields.
thesis statement The theme, or central idea, of a speech that serves to connect all the parts of the speech in a single line. The main points, supporting material, and the conclusion all bear upon the thesis.
toast A brief tribute to a person or an event being celebrated.
topic What the speech is about; a topic may be assigned to the speaker, or the speaker may have to choose one based on personal interests, experience, and knowledge.
topic mapping A brainstorming technique in which you lay out words in diagram form to show categorical relationships among them; a technique useful for selecting and narrowing a speech topic.
topical pattern of arrangement (also called categorical pattern) A pattern of organizing main points as subtopics or categories of the speech topic; of all organizational patterns, this one offers the most freedom to order speech points as desired.
trait anxiety A person’s general baseline level of anxiety. People with high trait anxiety are naturally anxious much of the time, whereas people with low trait anxiety will usually experience nervousness only in novel situations.
transitions (connectives) Words, phrases, or sentences that tie speech ideas together and enable a speaker to move smoothly from one point to the next.
triad A rhetorical device that makes use of three parallel elements.
trustworthiness The quality of displaying both honesty and dependability.
two-sided message An argument in which the speaker mentions opposing points of view and sometimes refutes them. See also one-sided message.
typeface An assortment or set of type or characters (fonts) all of one style and sometimes one size (called the “point size”). Typefaces come in a variety of lettering styles, such as Arial, Times Roman, or Courier.
uncertainty avoidance The extent to which people feel threatened by ambiguity.
understatement A figure of speech in which a speaker draws attention to an idea by minimizing its importance (e.g., “Flunking out of college might be a problem”).
uninformed, less educated, or apathetic audience An audience that knows or cares little about a specific topic.
valid generalization A generalization that is supported by different types of evidence from different sources and that does not make claims beyond a reasonable point.
values Our most enduring judgments or standards of what’s important to us (e.g., equal opportunity, democracy, change and progress, or perseverance).
video capture software Software that allows you to incorporate video clips into an online presentation.
videoconference Synchronized visual and audio communication between two or more remote locations.
virtual group A group in which members who are physically dispersed interact and exchange ideas through mediated communication such as e-mail and videoconferencing.
virtual library A collection of library holdings available online.
visual channel A nonverbal channel of communication that includes the speaker’s physical actions and appearance—facial expressions, gestures, general body movement, physical appearance, dress, and objects held.
virtue ethics An approach to ethical standards that emphasizes the role of individual moral character in guiding ethical decisions.
visual rhetoric The use of images to communicate meaning in a speech.
visualization An exercise for building confidence in which the speaker, while preparing for the speech, closes his or her eyes and envisions a series of positive feelings and reactions that will occur on the day of the speech.
vocal fillers Unnecessary and undesirable phrases or utterances that are used by a speaker to cover pauses in a speech or conversation, such as “uh,” “hmm,” “you know,” “I mean,” and “it’s like.”
vocal variety The variation of volume, pitch, rate, and pauses to create an effective delivery.
voice The feature of verbs in written and spoken text that indicates the subject’s relationship to the action; verbs can be either active or passive.
volume The relative loudness of a speaker’s voice while giving a speech.
voluntary audience As opposed to a captive audience, an audience whose members have chosen to attend the speech event.
warrant A line of reasoning in an argument that serves to demonstrate why the evidence is valid for (supports) the claim. See also reasoning.
warrant by analogy (also called reasoning by analogy) A means of justifying a claim by comparing two similar cases and implying that what is true for one case is true in the other.
warrant by cause (also called causal reasoning) A means of justifying a claim on the basis of providing a cause-effect relationship as proof of the claim.
webinar Real-time presentations, including training sessions, seminars, and other presentations that connect presenters and audiences from their desktops, regardless of where they are in the world.
word association A brainstorming technique in which you write down ideas as they come to mind, beginning with a single word; used to generate and narrow speech topics.
working outline A preparation or rough outline, often using full sentences, in which the speaker firms up and organizes speech points and incorporates supporting material to support them.