The Black Ships of the United StatesThe initial occasion for serious Japanese reflection on the West occurred in 1853–1854, in the context of American commodore Matthew Perry’s efforts to “open” Japan to regular commercial relationships with the United States. His nine coal-fired steamships, belching black smoke and carrying a crew of some 1,800 men and more than 100 mounted cannons, became known in Japan as the “black ships.” Created around 1854, this image represents perhaps the best known of many such Japanese depictions of the American warships.(The Granger Collection, NYC — All rights reserved)