In everyday conversation, an argument can be a heated exchange of ideas between two people. College roommates might argue over who should clean the sink or who left the door unlocked the previous night. Colleagues in a company might argue over policies or procedures. However, there is a difference between an emotional, irrational argument and a rational, effective argument.

An effective argument is a logical, well-thought-out presentation of ideas that makes a claim about an issue and supports that claim with evidence. This does not mean that emotion has no place in an argument. In fact, many sound arguments combine emotion with logic.

Even a casual conversation can make a reasoned argument, as in the following.

Damon is arguing that jurors are treated badly. He offers two reasons to support his claim and uses personal experience to support the second reason (that jurors are treated “like criminals”), which also serves as an emotional appeal.

An effective argument must clearly state an issue, make a claim, and offer support. In many cases an argument also recognizes or refutes (argues against) opposing viewpoints.

A graphic organizer showing the basic components of an argument appears in Figure 20.1. Note that unlike the graphic organizers in Chapters 11-19, the model graphic organizer that follows does not necessarily reflect the order in which the ideas are presented. Rather, it provides a visual representation of the components of an argument. The arguments you read may address opposing views before presenting reasons and evidence in support of the writer’s claim, for example.

An argument is concerned with an issue — a controversy, a problem, or an idea about which people hold different points of view. In the exchange between Damon and Maria, the issue is “fairness of jury duty.”

The claim is the point the writer tries to prove, usually the writer’s view on the issue. In Damon and Maria’s conversation, the claim is that “jury duty is unfair.” The claim often appears as part of the thesis statement in an argument essay. In some essays, however, it is implied rather than stated directly.

There are three types of claims.

The support in an argument consists of the ideas and information intended to convince readers that the claim is sound or believable. In Damon and Maria’s conversation, Damon provides two key pieces of support.

Three common types of support are reasons, evidence, and emotional appeals.

Reasons. A reason is a general statement that backs up a claim. It explains why the writer’s view on an issue is reasonable or correct. However, reasons alone are not sufficient support for an argument. Each reason must be supported by evidence and is sometimes accompanied by emotional appeals.

Evidence. The evidence provided in an argument usually consists of facts, statistics, examples, expert opinion, and observations from personal experience.

Emotional appeals. Emotional appeals evoke the needs or values that readers are likely to share.

The public service announcement appeals to both viewers’ needs and values. The picture of the cute dog appeals to viewers’ needs by evoking the emotional attachment to companion animals (either our own or other people’s pets) that many of us share. The text, “a person is the best thing to happen to a shelter pet,” also appeals to viewers’ need to be needed. The ad appeals to values as well by evoking the principle that caring for others, including animals, is important.

A refutation, also called a rebuttal, recognizes and argues against opposing viewpoints. Refutation involves finding a weakness in the opponent’s argument by casting doubt on the opponent’s reasons or by questioning the accuracy, relevance, and sufficiency of the opponent’s evidence.

Suppose you want to argue that you deserve a raise at work (your claim). To support your claim, you will remind your supervisor of the contributions and improvements you have made, your length of employment, your conscientiousness, and your promptness. But you suspect that your supervisor may still turn you down, not because you don’t deserve the raise but because other employees might demand a similar raise. By anticipating this potential objection, you can build into your argument the reasons that the objection is not valid. You may have more time invested with the company and have taken on more responsibilities than the other employees, for example.

If an opponent’s argument is too strong to refute, most writers will acknowledge or accommodate the opposing viewpoint in some way. They acknowledge an opposing view simply by stating it. They accommodate an opposing view by noting that it has merit and modifying their position or finding a way of addressing it. In an argument opposing hunting, for example, a writer might simply acknowledge the view that hunting bans would cause a population explosion among deer. The writer might accommodate this opposing view by stating that if a population explosion were to occur, the problem could be solved by reintroducing natural predators into the area.

The following readings illustrate the components of effective argument essays. The first reading is annotated to point out those components. As you read the second essay, try to identify for yourself the claim and the supporting reasons, evidence, and emotional appeals Brian Palmer includes. Look, too, for places where Palmer refutes, accommodates, or acknowledges opposing views on tipping.