Source 5.2: An Indian Expression of Patriarchy

The early centuries of Indian civilization (1500–500 B.C.E.) provide evidence for a degree of independence and respect for women of the upper castes. They participated in religious rituals, composed some of the hymns in the Vedas, could sometimes freely choose their husbands, were able to move freely in public, and could remarry. Much of this changed and a far more rigid patriarchy took hold as India’s classical civilization crystallized during the second-wave era. That patriarchy found expression in the Laws of Manu, a huge compilation of prescriptions for an ideal society, which developed around 200–400 C.E.

Questions to consider as you examine the source:

The Laws of Manu, 200–400 C.E.

Hear now the duties of women.

By a girl, by a young woman, or even by an aged one, nothing must be done independently, even in her own house.

In childhood a female must be subject to her father, in youth to her husband, when her lord is dead to her sons; a woman must never be independent.

She must not seek to separate herself from her father, husband, or sons; by leaving them she would make both (her own and her husband’s) families contemptible.

She must always be cheerful, clever in (the management of her) household affairs, careful in cleaning her utensils, and economical in expenditure.

Him to whom her father may give her, or her brother with the father’s permission, she shall obey as long as he lives, and when he is dead, she must not insult (his memory). . . .

Though destitute of virtue, or seeking pleasure (elsewhere), or devoid of good qualities, (yet) a husband must be constantly worshipped as a god by a faithful wife.

No sacrifice, no vow, no fast must be performed by women apart (from their husbands); if a wife obeys her husband, she will for that (reason alone) be exalted in heaven. . . .

[S]he must never even mention the name of another man after her husband has died. . . .

By violating her duty towards her husband, a wife is disgraced in this world, (and after death) she enters the womb of a jackal, and is tormented by diseases (the punishment of) her sin. . . .

[A] female who controls her thoughts, speech, and actions, gains in this (life) highest renown, and in the next (world) a place near her husband. . . .

No man can completely guard women by force; but they can be guarded by the . . . (following) expedients: let the (husband) employ his (wife) in the collection and expenditure of his wealth, in keeping (everything) clean, in (the fulfilment of) religious duties, in the preparation of his food, and in looking after the household utensils. . . .

Through their passion for men, through their mutable temper, through their natural heartlessness, they become disloyal towards their husbands, however carefully they may be guarded in this (world).

The husband receives his wife from the gods, (he does not wed her) according to his own will; doing what is agreeable to the gods, he must always support her (while she is) faithful.

“Let mutual fidelity continue until death,” — this may be considered as the summary of the highest law for husband and wife.

Source: The Laws of Manu, in The Sacred Books of the East, vol. 25, translated by G. Bühler (Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press, 1886), 194–97, 328–30, 332, 335, 344–45.