Merchants, mercenaries, monks, and missionaries were among the prominent sojourners who traversed the Silk Roads from China to Europe, traveling much of the time in Central or Inner Asia (see Map 7.1). Many more people, of course, lived permanently or for long periods of time in the area. Hailing from an immense variety of cultures, both travelers and permanent residents contributed to turning this vast region into a vital Eurasian arena of exchange. Perhaps most obviously, it was a commercial crossroads that featured trade in numerous goods, originating from the agricultural civilizations, pastoral societies, and gathering and hunting cultures of the region. (See Snapshot: Economic Exchange along the Silk Roads.) It was also a realm of cultural and religious encounters. Buddhism, Judaism, Christianity, Islam, Manichaeism (man-ih-KEE-iz’m), elements of Greek and Chinese culture — all of these traditions spread via the Silk Roads network, finding new expressions far from their places of origin. Finally, the territory encompassing the Silk Roads was an imperial crossroads, for the empires or military federations periodically established by pastoral societies clashed with the established civilizations and states of China, India, the Middle East, and Europe to the south and west.

Over the past century or so, scholars have learned much about life along the Silk Roads. Ancient manuscripts in many languages have brought to light Manichaean prayers, commercial contracts, lawsuits, medical prescriptions, erotic tales, and letters between husbands and wives. Stopping places on the trade routes, known as caravanserai, have been uncovered in oases or ancient market cities, and long-sealed caves have disclosed amazing treasures of Buddhist art. The images and documents that follow show something of life and travel on the Silk Roads and the cultural exchanges that ensued.

Among the first things that impressed travelers on the Silk Roads were the dangers from nature and man alike. Much of the route passed through harrowing terrain. Traveling from China to India in the seventh century, the Chinese Buddhist monk Xuangzang encountered mountains “so dangerously steep and tall that they seem to touch the sky.” Marco Polo traversed a desert that appeared endless, where water was scarce and “birds and beasts there are none,” and where sandstorms and hallucinations were a peril to travelers. Furthermore, when armies clashed or political authority broke down, human threats were added to those of nature.