active voice The form of a verb when the subject performs the action: Lata sang the chorus.
adjective A word that modifies, quantifies, identifies, or describes a noun or words acting as a noun.
adverb A word that qualifies, modifies, limits, or defines a verb, an adjective, another adverb, or a clause, frequently answering the question where? when? how? why? to what extent? or under what conditions?
agreement The correspondence between a pronoun and its antecedent in person, number, and gender (Mr. Fox and his sister) or between a verb and its subject in person and number (She and Moe are friends).
antecedent The noun or noun phrase that a pronoun replaces.
APA style The citation style guidelines issued by the American Psychological Association.
appositive A noun or noun phrase that adds identifying information to a preceding noun or noun phrase: Zimbardo, an innovative researcher, designed the experiment.
argument A text that makes and supports a claim.
base form The form of a verb listed in a dictionary (go).
case The form of a noun or pronoun that reflects its grammatical role: He ate (subjective). His food was cold (possessive). I saw him (objective).
Chicago style Citation guidelines based on The Chicago Manual of Style.
claim An arguable statement.
clause A group of words containing a subject and a predicate. An independent clause can stand alone as a sentence, while a dependent clause must be attached to an independent clause.
coherence Also called “flow,” the quality that makes a text seem unified.
comma splice An error in formal writing resulting from joining two independent clauses with only a comma.
comparative The -er or more form of an adjective or adverb used to compare two things (happier, more quickly).
conciseness Using the fewest possible words to make a point effectively.
conjunction A word or words joining words, phrases, or clauses. See coordinating conjunction; correlative conjunction; subordinating conjunction
conjunctive adverb A word (such as consequently, moreover, or nevertheless) that modifies an independent clause following another independent clause. A conjunctive adverb generally follows a semicolon and is followed by a comma: Thoreau lived simply at Walden; however, he regularly joined his aunt for tea in Concord.
coordinating conjunctions The words and, but, for, nor, or, so, and yet, which give the same emphasis to both the elements they join: Restaurants are expensive, so I cook.
correlative conjunctionsPaired conjunctions (both . . . and, either . . . or, neither . . . nor, not only . . . but also) used to connect equivalent elements.
count noun A noun referring to something that can be directly counted: women, trees. Contrast with noncount noun.
CSE style The citation style guidelines issued by the Council of Science Editors.
dependent clause Sometimes called a “subordinate clause,” a word group that contains a subject and a predicate but can’t stand alone as a sentence because it begins with either a subordinating conjunction (because, although) or a relative pronoun (that, which).
evidence Support for an argument’s claim. See also sources
faulty sentence structure A common writing problem in which a sentence begins with one grammatical pattern and switches to another (also called “mixed structure”).
fragment A group of words that is not a complete sentence but is punctuated as one. Usually a fragment lacks a subject, a verb, or both, or it is a dependent clause.
fused (run-
future tense The tense of a verb that indicates an action or condition has not yet happened: They will arrive next week.
genre A form of communication used for a particular purpose and incorporating certain conventional features. Some common examples include lab reports, researched essays, brochures, invitations, etc. See also academic writing; business writing; digital texts; public writing; and the directory of student writing.
gerund A verbal form that ends in -ing and functions as a noun: Sleeping is a bore.
helping verb A verb such as a form of be, do, or have or a modal combined with a main verb.
indefinite pronoun A word such as each, everyone, or nobody that does not refer to a specific person or thing.
independent clause A word group containing a subject and a predicate that can stand alone as a sentence.
infinitive To plus the base form of a verb (to go, to run, to hit), which can serve as a noun, an adverb, or an adjective: One option is to leave (noun). We stopped to rest (adverb). He needs time to adjust (adjective).
interjection An exclamation of surprise or other strong emotion: Ouch!
irregular verb A verb that does not form the past tense and past participle by adding -ed or -d to the base form.
linking verb A verb that suggests a state of being, not an action.
MLA style The citation style guidelines issued by the Modern Language Association.
modal A kind of helping verb that has only one form and shows possibility, necessity, or obligation: can, could, may, might, must, shall, should, will, would, ought to.
modifier A word, phrase, or clause that acts as an adjective or an adverb, qualifying the meaning of another word, phrase, or clause.
mood The form of a verb that indicates the writer’s attitude toward the idea expressed. The indicative mood states fact or opinion (I am happy); the imperative gives commands (Keep calm); and the subjunctive refers to a condition that does not exist (If I were rich . . . ).
multimodal text A description of a text that may include oral, visual, or audio elements in addition to (or instead of) words on a page. See also visuals and media
noncount noun A noun referring to a collection of things or to an idea that cannot be directly counted: sand, rain, violence. Contrast with count noun.
nonrestrictive element A word, phrase, or clause that provides more information about, but does not change, the essential meaning of a sentence. Nonrestrictive elements are set off from the rest of the sentence with commas: My instructor, who is perceptive, liked my introduction.
noun A word that names a person, place, thing, or idea.
object A noun or pronoun receiving the action of a verb (We mixed paints) or following a preposition (on the road).
participle A word formed from the base form of a verb. The present participle always ends in -ing (going). The past participle ends in -ed (ruined) unless the verb is irregular. A participle can function as an adjective (the singing frog, a ruined shirt) or form part of a verb phrase (You have ruined my shirt).
parts of speech The eight grammatical categories describing how words function in a sentence (adjectives, adverbs, conjunctions, interjections, nouns, prepositions, pronouns, verbs).
passive voice The form of a verb when the subject is being acted on, not acting: The batter was hit by a pitch.
past tense The tense of a verb that indicates an action or condition has already happened: They arrived yesterday.
perfect progressive The perfect tense of a verb showing an ongoing action at some point in the past, present, or future, with the main verb in the -ing form: The workers had been striking for a month before the settlement. He has been complaining for days. The construction will have been continuing for a year in May.
perfect tense The tense of a verb showing a completed action in the past, present, or future: They had hoped to see the parade but got stuck in traffic. I have never understood this equation. By then, the governor will have vetoed the bill.
person The point of view of a subject. The first person refers to itself (I); the second person addresses you; the third person refers to someone else (they).
phrase A group of words that lacks a subject, a verb, or both.
possessive form The form of a noun or pronoun that shows possession. Personal pronouns in the possessive case don’t use apostrophes (ours, hers), but possessive nouns and indefinite pronouns do (Harold’s, everyone’s).
predicate The verb and related words in a clause or sentence. The predicate expresses what the subject does, experiences, or is. The simple predicate is the verb or verb phrase: We have been living in the Atlanta area. The complete predicate includes the simple predicate and its modifiers, objects, and complements: We have been living in the Atlanta area.
preposition A word or word group that indicates the relationship of a noun or pronoun to another part of the sentence: From the top of the ladder we looked over the rooftops.
present perfect tense The tense of a verb that indicates an action or a condition has been completed before the present (The team has worked together well).
present tense The tense of a verb that indicates a general truth or a current action or condition: Things fall apart; We live off campus.
primary source A research source that provides firsthand knowledge of raw information.
progressive The -ing form of a verb showing a continuing action in the past, present, or future: He was snoring during the lecture. The economy is improving. Business schools will be competing for this student.
pronoun A word used in place of a noun.
regular verb A verb that forms the past tense and past participle by adding -d or -ed to the base form (care, cared; look, looked).
restrictive element A word, phrase, or clause that changes the essential meaning of a sentence. A restrictive element is not set off from the rest of the sentence with commas or other punctuation: The tree that I hit was an oak.
rhetorical situation The whole context for a piece of writing, including the person communicating, the topic and the person’s attitude toward it, and the intended audience.
secondary source A research source that reports on or analyzes the research of others or that describes or interprets a primary source.
sentence A group of words containing a subject and a predicate and expressing a complete thought. See also sentence errors; sentence structure
simple tenses The past (It happened), present (Things fall apart), and future (You will succeed) forms of verbs.
subject, 546–49 The noun or pronoun and related words that indicate who or what a sentence is about. The simple subject is the noun or pronoun: The timid gray mouse ran away. The complete subject is the simple subject and its modifiers: The timid gray mouse ran away. See also topic
subjunctive mood The form of a verb used to express a wish, a suggestion, a request or requirement, or a condition that does not exist: If I were president, I would change things.
subordinating conjunction A word or phrase such as although, because, or even though that introduces a dependent clause: Think carefully before you answer.
summary A brief retelling of the main points of a text.
superlative The -est or most form of an adjective or adverb used to compare three or more items (happiest, most quickly).
syntax The arrangement of words in a sentence.
synthesis Grouping ideas and information together in such a way that the relationship among them is clear.
tense The form of a verb that indicates the time when an action takes place—
text Traditionally, words on paper, but now anything that conveys a message. See also visuals and media
thesis A statement that indicates the main idea or claim of a piece of writing. Thesis statements should include a topic—
transition A word or phrase that signals a progression from one sentence or part of a sentence to another.
transitive verb A verb that acts on an object: I posted my review online.
verb A word or phrase, essential to a sentence, that expresses the action of a sentence or clause. Verbs change form to show tense, number, voice, and mood.
verbal A verb form that functions as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb.
verb phrase A main verb and one or more helping verbs, acting as a single verb.
voice The form of a verb that indicates whether the subject is acting or being acted on. In the active voice, the subject performs the action: Parker played the saxophone. In the passive voice, the subject receives the action: The saxophone was played by Parker.
warrant An assumption, sometimes unstated, that connects an argument’s claim to the reasons for making the claim.