Expectations about your authority as a writer. In the United States, students are often asked to establish authority in their writing—by drawing on certain kinds of personal experience, by reporting on research they or others have conducted, or by taking a position for which they can offer strong evidence and support. But this expectation about writerly authority is by no means universal. Indeed, some cultures view student writers as novices whose job is to reflect what they learn from their teachers. One Japanese student, for example, said he was taught that it’s rude to challenge a teacher: “Are you ever so smart that you should challenge the wisdom of the ages?”

As this student’s comment reveals, a writer’s tone also depends on his or her relationship with listeners and readers. As a world writer, you need to remember that those you’re addressing may hold a wide range of attitudes about authority.