Glossary of Usage

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This glossary includes words commonly confused (such as accept and except), words commonly misused (such as aggravate), and words that are nonstandard (such as hisself). It also lists colloquialisms and jargon. Colloquialisms are expressions that may be appropriate in informal speech but are inappropriate in formal writing. Jargon is needlessly technical or pretentious language that is inappropriate in most contexts. If an item is not listed here, consult the index.

a, anUse an before a vowel sound, a before a consonant sound: an apple, a peach. Problems sometimes arise with words beginning with h or u. If the h is silent, the word begins with a vowel sound, so use an: an hour, an honorable deed. If the h is pronounced, the word begins with a consonant sound, so use a: a hospital, a historian, a hotel. Words such as university and union begin with a consonant sound (a y sound), so use a: a union. Words such as uncle and umbrella begin with a vowel sound, so use an: an underground well. When an abbreviation or an acronym begins with a vowel sound, use an: an EKG, an MRI, an AIDS patient.

accept, except Accept is a verb meaning “to receive.” Except is usually a preposition meaning “excluding.” I will accept all the packages except that one. Except is also a verb meaning “to exclude.” Please except that item from the list.

adapt, adopt Adapt means “to adjust or become accustomed”; it is usually followed by to. Adopt means “to take as one’s own.” Our family adopted a Vietnamese orphan, who quickly adapted to his new life.

adverse, averse Adverse means “unfavorable.” Averse means “opposed” or “reluctant”; it is usually followed by to. I am averse to your proposal because it could have an adverse impact on the economy.

advice, advise Advice is a noun, advise a verb. We advise you to follow John’s advice.

affect, effect Affect is usually a verb meaning “to influence.” Effect is usually a noun meaning “result.” The drug did not affect the disease, and it had adverse side effects. Effect can also be a verb meaning “to bring about.” Only the president can effect such a dramatic change.

aggravate Aggravate means “to make worse or more troublesome.” Overgrazing aggravated the soil erosion. In formal writing, avoid the colloquial use of aggravate meaning “to annoy or irritate.” Her babbling annoyed (not aggravated) me.

agree to, agree with Agree to means “to give consent.” Agree with means “to be in accord” or “to come to an understanding.” He agrees with me about the need for change, but he won’t agree to my plan.

ain’t Ain’t is nonstandard. Use am not, are not (aren’t), or is not (isn’t). I am not (not ain’t) going home for spring break.

all ready, already All ready means “completely prepared.” Already means “previously.” Susan was all ready for the concert, but her friends had already left.

all right All right is written as two words. Alright is nonstandard.

all together, altogether All together means “everyone gathered.” Altogether means “entirely.” We were not altogether certain that we could bring the family all together for the reunion.

alludeTo allude to something is to make an indirect reference to it. Do not use allude to mean “to refer directly.” In his lecture the professor referred (not alluded) to several pre-Socratic philosophers.

allusion, illusionAn allusion is an indirect reference. An illusion is a misconception or false impression. Did you catch my allusion to Shakespeare? Mirrors give the room an illusion of depth.

a lot A lot is two words. Do not write alot. Sam lost a lot of weight.

among, betweenOrdinarily, use among with three or more entities, between with two. The prize was divided among several contestants. You have a choice between carrots and beans.

amongstIn American English, among is preferred.

amoral, immoral Amoral means “neither moral nor immoral”; it also means “not caring about moral judgments.” Immoral means “morally wrong.” Until recently, most business courses were taught from an amoral perspective. Murder is immoral.

amount, numberUse amount with quantities that cannot be counted; use number with those that can. This recipe calls for a large amount of sugar. We have a large number of toads in our garden.

anUse an before a vowel sound, a before a consonant sound: an apple, a peach. Problems sometimes arise with words beginning with h or u. If the h is silent, the word begins with a vowel sound, so use an: an hour, an honorable deed. If the h is pronounced, the word begins with a consonant sound, so use a: a hospital, a historian, a hotel. Words such as university and union begin with a consonant sound (a y sound), so use a: a union. Words such as uncle and umbrella begin with a vowel sound, so use an: an underground well. When an abbreviation or an acronym begins with a vowel sound, use an: an EKG, an MRI, an AIDS patient.

and etc. Et cetera (etc.) means “and so forth,” so and etc. is redundant. See also etc.

and/orAvoid the awkward construction and/or except in technical or legal documents.

angry at, angry withTo write that one is angry at another person is nonstandard. Use angry with instead.

ante-, anti-The prefix ante- means “earlier” or “in front of”; the prefix anti- means “against” or “opposed to.” William Lloyd Garrison was a leader of the antislavery movement during the antebellum period. Anti should be used with a hyphen when it is followed by a capital letter or a word beginning with i.

anxious Anxious means “worried” or “apprehensive.” In formal writing, avoid using anxious to mean “eager.” We are eager (not anxious) to see your new house.

anybody, anyoneThe indefinite pronouns anybody and anyone are singular. See Subject-verb agreement and Pronoun-antecedent agreement.

anymoreReserve the adverb anymore for negative contexts, where it means “any longer.” Moviegoers are rarely shocked anymore by profanity. Do not use anymore in positive contexts. Use now or nowadays instead. Interest rates are so low nowadays (not anymore) that more people can afford to buy homes.

anyoneThe indefinite pronouns anybody and anyone are singular. See Subject-verb agreement and Pronoun-antecedent agreement.

anyone, any one Anyone, an indefinite pronoun, means “any person at all.” Any one, the pronoun one preceded by the adjective any, refers to a particular person or thing in a group. Anyone from Chicago may choose any one of the games on display.

anyplaceIn formal writing, use anywhere.

anyways, anywheres Anyways and anywheres are nonstandard. Use anyway and anywhere.

as As is sometimes used to mean “because.” But do not use it if there is any chance of ambiguity. We canceled the picnic because (not as) it began raining. As here could mean “because” or “when.”

as, like Like is a preposition, not a subordinating conjunction. It can be followed only by a noun or a noun phrase. As is a subordinating conjunction that introduces a subordinate clause. In casual speech you may say She looks like she hasn’t slept or You don’t know her like I do. But in formal writing, use as. She looks as if she hasn’t slept. You don’t know her as I do. See Prepositions and Conjunctions.

as to As to is jargon for about. He inquired about (not as to) the job.

averse Adverse means “unfavorable.” Averse means “opposed” or “reluctant”; it is usually followed by to. I am averse to your proposal because it could have an adverse impact on the economy.

awfulThe adjective awful and the adverb awfully are too colloquial for formal writing.

awhile, a while Awhile is an adverb; it can modify a verb, but it cannot be the object of a preposition such as for. The two-word form a while is a noun preceded by an article and therefore can be the object of a preposition. Stay awhile. Stay for a while.

back up, backup Back up is a verb phrase. Back up the car carefully. Be sure to back up your hard drive. Backup is a noun meaning “a duplicate of electronically stored data.” Keep your backup in a safe place. Backup can also be used as an adjective. I regularly create backup disks.

bad, badly Bad is an adjective, badly an adverb. They felt bad about being early and ruining the surprise. Her arm hurt badly after she slid headfirst into second base.

being as, being that Being as and being that are nonstandard expressions. Write because instead. Because (not Being as) I slept late, I had to skip breakfast.

beside, besides Beside is a preposition meaning “at the side of” or “next to.” Annie Oakley slept with her gun beside her bed. Besides is a preposition meaning “except” or “in addition to.” No one besides Terrie can have that ice cream. Besides is also an adverb meaning “in addition.” I’m not hungry; besides, I don’t like ice cream.

between, amongOrdinarily, use among with three or more entities, between with two. The prize was divided among several contestants. You have a choice between carrots and beans.

bring, takeUse bring when an object is being transported toward you, take when it is being moved away. Please bring me a glass of water. Please take these flowers to Mr. Scott.

burst, bursted; bust, busted Burst is an irregular verb meaning “to come open or fly apart suddenly or violently.” Its principal parts are burst, burst, burst. The past-tense form bursted is nonstandard. Bust and busted are slang for burst and, along with bursted, should not be used in formal writing.

can, mayThe distinction between can and may is fading, but some writers still observe it in formal writing. Can is traditionally reserved for ability, may for permission. Can you speak French? May I help you?

capital, capitol Capital refers to a city, capitol to a building where lawmakers meet. Capital also refers to wealth or resources. The capitol has undergone extensive renovations. The residents of the state capital protested the development plans.

censor, censure Censor means “to remove or suppress material considered objectionable.” Censure means “to criticize severely.” The school’s policy of censoring books has been censured by the media.

cite, site Cite means “to quote as an authority or example.” Site is usually a noun meaning “a particular place.” He cited the zoning law in his argument against the proposed site of the gas station. Locations on the Internet are usually referred to as sites. The library’s website improves every week.

climactic, climatic Climactic is derived from climax, the point of greatest intensity in a series or progression of events. Climatic is derived from climate and refers to meteorological conditions. The climactic period in the dinosaurs’ reign was reached just before severe climatic conditions brought on an ice age.

coarse, course Coarse means “crude” or “rough in texture.” The coarse weave of the wall hanging gave it a three-dimensional quality. Course usually refers to a path, a playing field, or a unit of study; the expression of course means “certainly.” I plan to take a course in car repair this summer. Of course, you are welcome to join me.

compare to, compare with Compare to means “to represent as similar.” She compared him to a wild stallion. Compare with means “to examine similarities and differences.” The study compared the language ability of apes with that of dolphins.

complement, compliment Complement is a verb meaning “to go with or complete” or a noun meaning “something that completes.” Compliment as a verb means “to flatter”; as a noun it means “flattering remark.” Her skill at rushing the net complements his skill at volleying. Mother’s flower arrangements receive many compliments.

conscience, conscious Conscience is a noun meaning “moral principles.” Conscious is an adjective meaning “aware or alert.” Let your conscience be your guide. Were you conscious of his love for you?

continual, continuous Continual means “repeated regularly and frequently.” She grew weary of the continual telephone calls. Continuous means “extended or prolonged without interruption.” The broken siren made a continuous wail.

could care less Could care less is a nonstandard expression. Write couldn’t care less instead. He couldn’t (not could) care less about his psychology final.

could of Could of is nonstandard for could have. Use the verb have, not the preposition of, after the verbs could, should, would, may, might, and must. We could have (not could of) taken the train.

council, counselA council is a deliberative body, and a councilor is a member of such a body. Counsel usually means “advice” and can also mean “lawyer”; counselor is one who gives advice or guidance. The councilors met to draft the council’s position paper. The pastor offered wise counsel to the troubled teenager.

criteria Criteria is the plural of criterion, which means “a standard or rule or test on which a judgment or decision can be based.” The only criterion for the scholarship is ability.

data Data is a plural noun technically meaning “facts or propositions.” But data is increasingly being accepted as a singular noun. The new data suggest (or suggests) that our theory is correct. (The singular datum is rarely used.)

different from, different thanOrdinarily, write different from. Your sense of style is different from Jim’s. However, different than is acceptable to avoid an awkward construction. Please let me know if your plans are different than (to avoid from what) they were six weeks ago.

differ from, differ with Differ from means “to be unlike”; differ with means “to disagree.” She differed with me about the wording of the agreement. My approach to the problem differed from hers.

disinterested, uninterested Disinterested means “impartial, objective”; uninterested means “not interested.” We sought the advice of a disinterested counselor to help us solve our problem. He was uninterested in anyone’s opinion but his own.

don’t Don’t is the contraction for do not. I don’t want any. Don’t should not be used as the contraction for does not, which is doesn’t. He doesn’t (not don’t) want any. Also see Double negatives.

due to Due to is an adjective phrase and should not be used as a preposition meaning “because of.” The trip was canceled because of (not due to) lack of interest. Due to is acceptable as a subject complement and usually follows a form of the verb be. His success was due to hard work.

eachThe indefinite pronoun each is singular. See Subject-verb agreement and Pronoun-antecedent agreement.

effect Affect is usually a verb meaning “to influence.” Effect is usually a noun meaning “result.” The drug did not affect the disease, and it had adverse side effects. Effect can also be a verb meaning “to bring about.” Only the president can effect such a dramatic change.

e.g.In formal writing, replace the Latin abbreviation e.g. with its English equivalent: for example or for instance.

eitherThe indefinite pronoun either is singular. See Subject-verb agreement and Pronoun-antecedent agreement. For either . . . or constructions, also see Subject-verb agreement and Pronoun-antecedent agreement.

elicit, illicit Elicit is a verb meaning “to bring out” or “to evoke.” Illicit is an adjective meaning “unlawful.” The reporter was unable to elicit any information from the police about illicit drug traffic.

emigrate from, immigrate to Emigrate means “to leave one country or region to settle in another.” In 1900, my grandfather emigrated from Russia to escape the religious pogroms. Immigrate means “to enter another country and reside there.” Many Mexicans immigrate to the United States to find work.

eminent, imminent Eminent means “outstanding” or “distinguished.” We met an eminent professor of Greek history. Imminent means “about to happen.” The announcement is imminent.

enthusedMany people object to the use of enthused as an adjective. Use enthusiastic instead. The children were enthusiastic (not enthused) about going to the circus.

etc.Avoid ending a list with etc. It is more emphatic to end with an example, and in most contexts readers will understand that the list is not exhaustive. When you don’t wish to end with an example, and so on is more graceful than etc.

eventually, ultimatelyOften used interchangeably, eventually is the better choice to mean “at an unspecified time in the future” and ultimately is better to mean “the furthest possible extent or greatest extreme.” He knew that eventually he would complete his degree. The existentialist considered suicide the ultimately rational act.

everybody, everyoneThe indefinite pronouns everybody and everyone are singular. See Subject-verb agreement and Pronoun-antecedent agreement.

everyone, every one Everyone is an indefinite pronoun. Every one, the pronoun one preceded by the adjective every, means “each individual or thing in a particular group.” Every one is usually followed by of. Everyone wanted to go. Every one of the missing books was found.

except Accept is a verb meaning “to receive.” Except is usually a preposition meaning “excluding.” I will accept all the packages except that one. Except is also a verb meaning “to exclude.” Please except that item from the list.

expectAvoid the colloquial use of expect meaning “to believe, think, or suppose.” I think (not expect) it will rain tonight.

explicit, implicit Explicit means “expressed directly” or “clearly defined”; implicit means “implied, unstated.” I gave him explicit instructions not to go swimming. My mother’s silence indicated her implicit approval.

farther, further Farther usually describes distances. Further usually suggests quantity or degree. Chicago is farther from Miami than I thought. You extended the curfew further than you should have.

fewer, less Fewer refers to items that can be counted; less refers to items that cannot be counted. Fewer people are living in the city. Please put less sugar in my tea.

finalize Finalize is jargon meaning “to make final or complete.” Use ordinary English instead. The architect prepared final drawings (not finalized the drawings).

firstly Firstly sounds pretentious, and it leads to the ungainly series firstly, secondly, thirdly, and so on. Write first, second, third instead.

further Farther usually describes distances. Further usually suggests quantity or degree. Chicago is farther from Miami than I thought. You extended the curfew further than you should have.

get Get has many colloquial uses. In writing, avoid using get to mean the following: “to evoke an emotional response” (That music always gets to me); “to annoy” (After a while his sulking got to me); “to take revenge on” (I got back at him by leaving the room); “to become” (He got sick); “to start or begin” (Let’s get going). Avoid using have got to in place of must. I must (not have got to) finish this paper tonight.

good, well Good is an adjective, well an adverb. He hasn’t felt good about his game since he sprained his wrist last season. She performed well on the uneven parallel bars.

graduateBoth of the following uses of graduate are standard: My sister was graduated from UCLA last year. My sister graduated from UCLA last year. It is nonstandard, however, to drop the word from: My sister graduated UCLA last year. Though this usage is common in informal English, many readers object to it.

growPhrases such as to grow the economy and to grow a business are jargon. Usually the verb grow is intransitive (it does not take a direct object). Our business has grown very quickly. When grow is used in a transitive sense, with a direct object, it means “to cultivate” or “to allow to grow.” We plan to grow tomatoes this year. John is growing a beard.

hanged, hung Hanged is the past-tense and past-participle form of the verb hang meaning “to execute.” The prisoner was hanged at dawn. Hung is the past-tense and past-participle form of the verb hang meaning “to fasten or suspend.” The stockings were hung by the chimney with care. See Irregular verbs.

hardlyAvoid expressions such as can’t hardly and not hardly, which are considered double negatives. I can (not can’t) hardly describe my elation at getting the job.

has got, have got Got is unnecessary and awkward in such constructions. It should be dropped. We have (not have got) three days to prepare for the opening.

heAt one time he was commonly used to mean “he or she.” Today such usage is inappropriate. See Nonsexist language and Pronoun-antecedent agreement.

he/she, his/herIn formal writing, use he or she or his or her. For alternatives to these wordy constructions, see Nonsexist language and Pronoun-antecedent agreement.

hisself Hisself is nonstandard. Use himself.

hopefully Hopefully means “in a hopeful manner.” We looked hopefully to the future. Some usage experts object to the use of hopefully as a sentence adverb, apparently on grounds of clarity. To be safe, avoid using hopefully in sentences such as the following: Hopefully, your son will recover soon. At least some educated readers will want you to indicate who is doing the hoping: I hope that your son will recover soon.

howeverIn the past, some writers objected to however at the beginning of a sentence, but current experts advise you to place the word according to your meaning and desired emphasis. Any of the following sentences is correct, depending on the intended contrast. Pam decided, however, to attend Harvard. However, Pam decided to attend Harvard. (She had been considering other schools.) Pam, however, decided to attend Harvard. (Unlike someone else, Pam opted for Harvard.)

hung Hanged is the past-tense and past-participle form of the verb hang meaning “to execute.” The prisoner was hanged at dawn. Hung is the past-tense and past-participle form of the verb hang meaning “to fasten or suspend.” The stockings were hung by the chimney with care. See Irregular verbs.

i.e.In formal writing, replace the Latin abbreviation i.e. with its English equivalent: that is.

if, whetherUse if to express a condition and whether to express alternatives. If you go on a trip, whether to Nebraska or New Jersey, remember to bring traveler’s checks.

illusionAn allusion is an indirect reference. An illusion is a misconception or false impression. Did you catch my allusion to Shakespeare? Mirrors give the room an illusion of depth.

immigrate Emigrate means “to leave one country or region to settle in another.” In 1900, my grandfather emigrated from Russia to escape the religious pogroms. Immigrate means “to enter another country and reside there.” Many Mexicans immigrate to the United States to find work.

imminent Eminent means “outstanding” or “distinguished.” We met an eminent professor of Greek history. Imminent means “about to happen.” The announcement is imminent.

immoral Amoral means “neither moral nor immoral”; it also means “not caring about moral judgments.” Immoral means “morally wrong.” Until recently, most business courses were taught from an amoral perspective. Murder is immoral.

implement Implement is a pretentious way of saying “do,” “carry out,” or “accomplish.” Use ordinary language instead. We carried out (not implemented) the director’s orders with some reluctance.

imply, infer Imply means “to suggest or state indirectly”; infer means “to draw a conclusion.” John implied that he knew all about computers, but the interviewer inferred that John was inexperienced.

in, into In indicates location or condition; into indicates movement or a change in condition. They found the lost letters in a box after moving into the house. Also see Prepositions of time and place.

in regards to In regards to confuses two different phrases: in regard to and as regards. Use one or the other. In regard to (or As regards) the contract, ignore the first clause.

irregardless Irregardless is nonstandard. Use regardless.

is when, is whereThese mixed constructions are often incorrectly used in definitions. A run-off election is a second election held to break a tie (not is when a second election breaks a tie).

its, it’s Its is a possessive pronoun; it’s is a contraction for it is. The dog licked its wound whenever its owner walked into the room. It’s a perfect day to walk the twenty-mile trail. See Apostrophe in contractions.

kind(s) Kind is singular and should be treated as such. Don’t write These kind of chairs are rare. Write instead This kind of chair is rare. Kinds is plural and should be used only when you mean more than one kind. These kinds of chairs are rare.

kind of, sort ofAvoid using kind of or sort of to mean “somewhat.” The movie was somewhat (not kind of) boring. Do not put a after either phrase. That kind of (not kind of a) salesclerk annoys me.

lay, lie Lie is an intransitive verb meaning “to recline or rest on a surface.” Its principal parts are lie, lay, lain. Lay is a transitive verb meaning “to put or place.” Its principal parts are lay, laid, laid. Also see lie vs. lay.

lead, led Lead is a metallic element; it is a noun. Led is the past tense of the verb lead. He led me to the treasure.

learn, teach Learn means “to gain knowledge”; teach means “to impart knowledge.” I must teach (not learn) my sister to read.

leave, let Leave means “to exit.” Avoid using it with the nonstandard meaning “to permit.” Let (not Leave) me help you with the dishes.

less Fewer refers to items that can be counted; less refers to items that cannot be counted. Fewer people are living in the city. Please put less sugar in my tea.

let, leave Leave means “to exit.” Avoid using it with the nonstandard meaning “to permit.” Let (not Leave) me help you with the dishes.

liable Liable means “obligated” or “responsible.” Do not use it to mean “likely.” You’re likely (not liable) to trip if you don’t tie your shoelaces.

lie, lay Lie is an intransitive verb meaning “to recline or rest on a surface.” Its principal parts are lie, lay, lain. Lay is a transitive verb meaning “to put or place.” Its principal parts are lay, laid, laid. Also see lie vs. lay.

like, as Like is a preposition, not a subordinating conjunction. It can be followed only by a noun or a noun phrase. As is a subordinating conjunction that introduces a subordinate clause. In casual speech you may say She looks like she hasn’t slept or You don’t know her like I do. But in formal writing, use as. She looks as if she hasn’t slept. You don’t know her as I do. See Prepositions and Conjunctions.

loose, lose Loose is an adjective meaning “not securely fastened.” Lose is a verb meaning “to misplace” or “to not win.” Did you lose your only loose pair of work pants?

lots, lots of Lots and lots of are colloquial substitutes for many, much, or a lot. Avoid using them in formal writing.

mankindAvoid mankind whenever possible. It offends many readers because it excludes women. Use humanity, humans, the human race, or humankind instead. See Nonsexist language.

may, canThe distinction between can and may is fading, but some writers still observe it in formal writing. Can is traditionally reserved for ability, may for permission. Can you speak French? May I help you?

maybe, may be Maybe is an adverb meaning “possibly.” May be is a verb phrase. Maybe the sun will shine tomorrow. Tomorrow may be a brighter day.

may of, might of May of and might of are nonstandard for may have and might have. Use the verb have, not the preposition of, after the verbs could, should, would, may, might, and must. We may have (not may of) had too many cookies.

media, medium Media is the plural of medium. Of all the media that cover the Olympics, television is the medium that best captures the spectacle of the events.

most Most is colloquial when used to mean “almost” and should be avoided. Almost (not Most) everyone went to the parade.

must of Must of is nonstandard for must have. Use the verb have, not the preposition of, after the verbs could, should, would, may, might, and must. We must have (not must of) had too many cookies.

myself Myself is a reflexive or intensive pronoun. Reflexive: I cut myself. Intensive: I will drive you myself. Do not use myself in place of I or me. He gave the flowers to Melinda and me (not myself ). See also Pronoun case.

neitherThe indefinite pronoun neither is singular. See Subject-verb agreement and Pronoun-antecedent agreement. For neither . . . nor constructions, also see Subject-verb agreement and Pronoun-antecedent agreement.

noneThe indefinite pronoun none may be singular or plural. See Subject-verb agreement.

nowheres Nowheres is nonstandard for nowhere.

numberUse amount with quantities that cannot be counted; use number with those that can. This recipe calls for a large amount of sugar. We have a large number of toads in our garden.

ofUse the verb have, not the preposition of, after the verbs could, should, would, may, might, and must. They must have (not must of) left early.

off of Off is sufficient. Omit of. The ball rolled off (not off of) the table.

OK, O.K., okayAll three spellings are acceptable, but in formal speech and writing avoid these colloquial expressions.

parameters Parameter is a mathematical term that has become jargon for “fixed limit,” “boundary,” or “guideline.” Use ordinary English instead. The task force was asked to work within certain guidelines (not parameters).

passed, past Passed is the past tense of the verb pass. Mother passed me another slice of cake. Past usually means “belonging to a former time” or “beyond a time or place.” Our past president spoke until past midnight. The hotel is just past the next intersection.

percent, per cent, percentage Percent (also spelled per cent) is always used with a specific number. Percentage is used with a descriptive term such as large or small, not with a specific number. The candidate won 80 percent of the primary vote. Only a small percentage of registered voters turned out for the election.

phenomena Phenomena is the plural of phenomenon, which means “an observable occurrence or fact.” Strange phenomena occur at all hours of the night in that house, but last night’s phenomenon was the strangest of all.

plus Plus should not be used to join independent clauses. This raincoat is dirty; moreover (not plus), it has a hole in it.

precede, proceed Precede means “to come before.” Proceed means “to go forward.” As we proceeded up the mountain path, we noticed fresh tracks in the mud, evidence that a group of hikers had preceded us.

principal, principle Principal is a noun meaning “the head of a school or an organization” or “a sum of money.” It is also an adjective meaning “most important.” Principle is a noun meaning “a basic truth or law.” The principal expelled her for three principal reasons. We believe in the principle of equal justice for all.

proceed, precede Precede means “to come before.” Proceed means “to go forward.” As we proceeded up the mountain path, we noticed fresh tracks in the mud, evidence that a group of hikers had preceded us.

quote, quotation Quote is a verb; quotation is a noun. Avoid using quote as a shortened form of quotation. Her quotations (not quotes) from Shakespeare intrigued us.

raise, rise Raise is a transitive verb meaning “to move or cause to move upward.” It takes a direct object. I raised the shades. Rise is an intransitive verb meaning “to go up.” Heat rises.

real, really Real is an adjective; really is an adverb. Real is sometimes used informally as an adverb, but avoid this use in formal writing. She was really (not real) angry. See Adjectives and adverbs.

reason . . . is becauseUse that instead of because. The reason she’s cranky is that (not because) she didn’t sleep last night. See Mixed constructions.

reason whyThe expression reason why is redundant. The reason (not The reason why) Jones lost the election is clear.

relation, relationship Relation describes a connection between things. Relationship describes a connection between people. There is a relation between poverty and infant mortality. Our business relationship has cooled over the years.

respectfully, respectively Respectfully means “showing or marked by respect.” Respectively means “each in the order given.” He respectfully submitted his opinion to the judge. John, Tom, and Larry were a butcher, a baker, and a lawyer, respectively.

sensual, sensuous Sensual means “gratifying the physical senses,” especially those associated with sexual pleasure. Sensuous means “pleasing to the senses,” especially those involved in the experience of art, music, and nature. The sensuous music and balmy air led the dancers to more sensual movements.

set, sit Set is a transitive verb meaning “to put” or “to place.” Its principal parts are set, set, set. Sit is an intransitive verb meaning “to be seated.” Its principal parts are sit, sat, sat. She set the dough in a warm corner of the kitchen. The cat sat in the warmest part of the room.

shall, will Shall was once used as the helping verb with I or we: I shall, we shall, you will, he/she/it will, they will. Today, however, will is generally accepted even when the subject is I or we. The word shall occurs primarily in polite questions (Shall I find you a pillow?) and in legalistic sentences suggesting duty or obligation (The applicant shall file form 1080 by December 31).

should of Should of is nonstandard for should have. Use the verb have, not the preposition of, after the verbs could, should, would, may, might, and must. They should have (not should of) been home an hour ago.

sinceDo not use since to mean “because” if there is any chance of ambiguity. Because (not Since) we won the game, we have been celebrating with a pitcher of root beer. Since here could mean “because” or “from the time that.”

sitSee set, sit.

site Cite means “to quote as an authority or example.” Site is usually a noun meaning “a particular place.” He cited the zoning law in his argument against the proposed site of the gas station. Locations on the Internet are usually referred to as sites. The library’s website improves every week.

somebody, someoneThe indefinite pronouns somebody and someone are singular. See Subject-verb agreement and Pronoun-antecedent agreement.

somethingThe indefinite pronoun something is singular. See Subject-verb agreement.

sometime, some time, sometimes Sometime is an adverb meaning “at an indefinite or unstated time.” Some time is the adjective some modifying the noun time and is spelled as two words to mean “a period of time.” Sometimes is an adverb meaning “at times, now and then.” I’ll see you sometime soon. I haven’t lived there for some time. Sometimes I run into him at the library.

suppose toWrite supposed to.

sure andWrite sure to. We were all taught to be sure to (not and) look both ways before crossing a street.

takeUse bring when an object is being transported toward you, take when it is being moved away. Please bring me a glass of water. Please take these flowers to Mr. Scott.

than, then Than is a conjunction used in comparisons; then is an adverb denoting time. That pizza is more than I can eat. Tom laughed, and then we recognized him.

thatDo not use which to refer to persons. Use who instead. That, though generally used to refer to things, may be used to refer to a group or class of people. The player who (not that or which) made the basket at the buzzer was named MVP. The team that scores the most points in this game will win the tournament.

that, whichMany writers reserve that for restrictive clauses, which for nonrestrictive clauses. See Restrictive vs. nonrestrictive.

theirselves Theirselves is nonstandard for themselves. The crash victims pushed the car out of the way themselves (not theirselves).

themThe use of them in place of those is nonstandard. Please send those (not them) flowers to the patient in room 220.

there, their, they’re There is an adverb specifying place; it is also an expletive. Adverb: Sylvia is lying there unconscious. Expletive: There are two plums left. Their is a possessive pronoun. Fred and Jane finally washed their car. They’re is a contraction of they are. They’re later than usual today.

theyThe use of they to indicate possession is nonstandard. Use their instead. Cindy and Sam decided to sell their (not they) 1975 Corvette.

this kind Kind is singular and should be treated as such. Don’t write These kind of chairs are rare. Write instead This kind of chair is rare. Kinds is plural and should be used only when you mean more than one kind. These kinds of chairs are rare.

to, too, two To is a preposition; too is an adverb; two is a number. Too many of your shots slice to the left, but the last two were just right.

toward, towards Toward and towards are generally interchangeable, although toward is preferred in American English.

try and Try and is nonstandard for try to. The teacher asked us all to try to (not try and) write an original haiku.

ultimately, eventuallyOften used interchangeably, eventually is the better choice to mean “at an unspecified time in the future” and ultimately is better to mean “the furthest possible extent or greatest extreme.” He knew that eventually he would complete his degree. The existentialist considered suicide the ultimately rational act.

uniqueAvoid expressions such as most unique, more straight, less perfect, very round. Either something is unique or it isn’t. It is illogical to suggest degrees of uniqueness. See Absolute concepts.

usageThe noun usage should not be substituted for use when the meaning is “employment of.” The use (not usage) of computers dramatically increased the company’s profits.

use toWrite used to.

utilize Utilize means “to make use of.” It often sounds pretentious; in most cases, use is sufficient. I used (not utilized) the laser printer.

wait for, wait on Wait for means “to be in readiness for” or “await.” Wait on means “to serve.” We’re only waiting for (not waiting on) Ruth to take us to the game.

ways Ways is colloquial when used to mean “distance.” The city is a long way (not ways) from here.

weather, whetherThe noun weather refers to the state of the atmosphere. Whether is a conjunction referring to a choice between alternatives. We wondered whether the weather would clear.

well, good Good is an adjective, well an adverb. He hasn’t felt good about his game since he sprained his wrist last season. She performed well on the uneven parallel bars.

whereDo not use where in place of that. I heard that (not where) the crime rate is increasing.

which, thatMany writers reserve that for restrictive clauses, which for nonrestrictive clauses. See Restrictive vs. nonrestrictive.

which, who, thatDo not use which to refer to persons. Use who instead. That, though generally used to refer to things, may be used to refer to a group or class of people. The player who (not that or which) made the basket at the buzzer was named MVP. The team that scores the most points in this game will win the tournament.

whileAvoid using while to mean “although” or “whereas” if there is any chance of ambiguity. Although (not While) Gloria lost money in the slot machine, Tom won it at roulette. Here While could mean either “although” or “at the same time that.”

who, which, thatDo not use which to refer to persons. Use who instead. That, though generally used to refer to things, may be used to refer to a group or class of people. The player who (not that or which) made the basket at the buzzer was named MVP. The team that scores the most points in this game will win the tournament.

who, whom Who is used for subjects and subject complements; whom is used for objects. See Case of who and whom; who and whom in subordinate clauses.

who’s, whose Who’s is a contraction of who is; whose is a possessive pronoun. Who’s ready for more popcorn? Whose coat is this? See The apostrophe.

will Shall was once used as the helping verb with I or we: I shall, we shall, you will, he/she/it will, they will. Today, however, will is generally accepted even when the subject is I or we. The word shall occurs primarily in polite questions (Shall I find you a pillow?) and in legalistic sentences suggesting duty or obligation (The applicant shall file form 1080 by December 31).

would of Would of is nonstandard for would have. Use the verb have, not the preposition of, after the verbs could, should, would, may, might, and must. She would have (not would of) had a chance to play if she had arrived on time.

youIn formal writing, avoid you in an indefinite sense meaning “anyone.” Any spectator (not You) could tell by the way John caught the ball that his throw would be too late. See Pronoun reference.

your, you’re Your is a possessive pronoun; you’re is a contraction of you are. Is that your new motorcycle? You’re on the list of finalists.