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absolute conceptA concept that cannot be modified because its meaning suggests a unique or defined quality (round, straight, perfect, unique).
absolute phraseA phrase that modifies a whole sentence (rather than another word or phrase). It consists of a noun followed by a participial phrase: My license having expired, I took the bus to school.
abstract1. A brief summary of an article or another work.
2. Theoretical, existing in the realm of ideas and not experience; opposite of concrete.
abstract nounA word that names a concept, idea, theory, or quality: justice, knowledge, beauty; opposite of concrete noun.
academic journalA regularly published collection of articles and reviews for a scholarly audience.
acronymA pronounceable word created from the initial letters of a series of words: RAM, AIDS, NATO, radar.
action verbA main verb that expresses an action, not a state of being. Contrast with linking or be verbs.
active verbA verb in the active voice, with a subject that performs the action: Rosa recited the poem.
active readingA reading of a text that consists of asking questions, challenging the author, annotating the text, or discussing the issues raised by the text.
active voiceA verb is in the active voice when its subject performs the action: I walked to school. Joan caught a butterfly.
active vs. passive voiceIn the active voice, the verb expresses an action and the subject performs the action: Sue caught the ball. In the passive voice, the subject receives the action of the verb: The ball was caught by Sue. Often the actor does not appear in a passive-voice sentence: The ball was caught.
ad hominemA logical fallacy that involves attacking a person rather than the substance of an argument.
adjectiveA word that modifies or describes a noun or pronoun: lame, old, rare, beautiful. Adjectives usually answer one of these questions: Which one? What kind of? How many or how much? Articles (a, an, the) are classified as adjectives.
adjective clauseA subordinate clause that modifies a noun or pronoun; it begins with a relative pronoun (who, whom, whose, which, that) or a relative adverb (when, where) and usually appears right after the word it modifies: The person who called me did not give her name. The restaurant where Gino works was closed for health violations.
adjective phraseAn adjective and its modifiers used to describe a noun: very colorful hat; the long, slow process.
adverbA word that modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb: very, smoothly, never. An adverb usually answers one of these questions: When? Where? How? Why? Under what conditions? To what degree?
adverb clauseA subordinate clause that modifies a verb or occasionally an adjective or adverb; it begins with a subordinating conjunction such as although, because, if, unless, or when and usually appears at the beginning or the end of a sentence: If the rain stops, we will walk to the post office.
adverb phraseA phrase that modifies a verb, an adjective, or an adverb: They stopped to smell the roses.
affixA syllable added to the base form of a word to change its meaning or function; prefix, suffix: clearly, antivirus.
agreementA kind of grammatical reference in which the form of one word depends on the form of another word. A verb must agree with its subject in number and person. A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in number, person, and gender.
alignmentPosition of text on a page—left, right, centered—with respect to the margins or another point on the page.
ambiguityThe quality of having more than one meaning. Good writers avoid unintentional ambiguity.
ambiguous pronoun referenceAn error in which a pronoun unintentionally points to more than one possible antecedent.
American Psychological AssociationA professional organization of psychologists; the publisher of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, a style manual for writing and documentation in the social sciences.
analogyA comparison between items that appear to have little in common.
analysisA mode of writing that takes apart a complex topic or a text to show how its parts relate to its central argument or purpose, often with the aim of judging its evidence or overall effect.
angle brackets <>A pair of punctuation marks used in some documentation styles to set off a Web address (URL).
annotated bibliographyA list of sources used in a paper, with a brief explanation about and usually an assessment of each source.
annotating a textMaking notes on a written or visual text to understand its meaning or as reminders of important points.
antecedentThe noun or pronoun to which a pronoun refers.
antonymA word that is opposite in meaning to another word: tight/loose, smooth/rough.
APAAmerican Psychological Association; the publisher of the Publication Manual of the APA, a style manual for writing and documentation in the social sciences.
appealA method a writer uses to make an argument convincing to readers. Aristotle suggests that a writer can appeal to emotions (pathos), reason (logos), or authority (ethos).
appositiveA noun or noun phrase that renames a nearby noun or pronoun: Bailey, the representative from Alabama, voted for the bill.
apostrophe1. A mark of punctuation that signals the possessive case or a letter omitted in a contraction.
2. A figure of speech involving direct address.
archivesA collection of primary sources in print or electronic form.
argumentWriting that takes a stand on a debatable issue.
arrangementThe way that ideas are ordered or organized into an argument or exposition.
article1. The word a, an, or the, used to mark a noun.
2. A work in a journal, newspaper, or magazine.
artworkPictures, diagrams, photos, tables, or other visuals.
aspectThe verb system that indicates whether an action is completed or continuing, one-time or habitual.
assumptionAn idea that can be taken as a starting point in an argument without being demonstrated to be true.
attributionIdentification of the source of an idea or information.
audienceThe person or group to whom a piece of writing or a speech is directed.
authority1. A person with specialized knowledge, especially one who can be cited to back up an argument.
2. The projection of an author’s knowledge or expertise within a text.
auxiliary verbA modal or helping verb that comes before a main verb as part of the verb phrase: can require, does climb).
awkward (awk)Used to label writing that does not read smoothly, that mixes constructions, or that confuses readers.
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backingA secondary argument or line of reasoning that supports the primary argument.
bandwagon appealThe logical fallacy of arguing that because some people do something, everyone ought to do the same thing.
bar graphA chart that uses vertical or horizontal bars to highlight trends over time or compare numerical data. Also known as a histogram.
base formThe dictionary form of a word, without any prefixes or suffixes or markers of tense or case.
be verbA linking verb that expresses existence or equivalence. The forms of be are be, am, is, are, was, were, being, and been.
biasA limited, self-interested, or sometimes intolerant point of view in a text.
biased languageLanguage that reflects a narrow or intolerant point of view.
bibliographyAn end-of-text list of the print or electronic works consulted as background and support for a text; usually arranged alphabetically by authors’ last names. Bibliography is the term used in Chicago style in the humanities. See also reference list; works cited list.
block indentIndentation of a section of text from the left and sometimes also the right margin.
blogShort for Weblog, an online posting of individual opinion or commentary.
blueprintingA technique of indicating in a text’s introduction the order of the major topics to follow.
bodyThe main portion of a text, between the introduction and the conclusion.
borderA line or decorative element that surrounds a text or part of a text, a visual, or a cell in a table.
borrowed languageLanguage that comes from another writer and that should be documented. Borrowing language without citing the source is considered plagiarism.
bracket [ ] < > { }A mark of punctuation that encloses material. Square brackets, angle brackets, and curly braces or brackets all have specialized uses in different disciplines. Also see parentheses.
brainstormingA prewriting technique for generating ideas that involves quickly listing as many related thoughts as possible about a topic. Brainstorming can be used individually or in groups.
broad referenceA pronoun error in which a pronoun such as it, this, that, or these does not have a specific antecedent.
bulletA bold dot or other shape used to set off items in a list.
bullet listA list of items with each item on a line preceded by a bullet (a bold dot). A bullet list is typically introduced by a full clause.
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call numberThe combination of letters and numbers that a library assigns to each item in its collection. Two main systems of numbering are the Library of Congress system and the Dewey decimal system.
canons of rhetoricThe major activities that a writer or speaker must attend to in developing a text or speech: invention, arrangement, style, memory, delivery.
captionText that accompanies a visual and explains it; it often contains source information for the visual.
case1. Grammatically, an indicator of the role a noun or pronoun plays in relation to other words: subjective (for subjects and subject complements), objective (for objects), and possessive (for ownership).
2. Typographically, the basic forms of letters: uppercase (capital) and lowercase.
case study1. A form of research that closely examines an individual or an organization.
2. A learning exercise that involves describing an event or problem within an organization and asking what ought to be done.
catalogA list of books and other library holdings, with bibliographic information about each work. Formerly called the card catalog but now usually electronic.
cause and effectPattern of organization that presents an event (the “effect”) as having resulted from an earlier event (the “cause”).
cellThe smallest bounded area of a table, into which data or words are entered.
character studyA mode of writing that analyzes, explores, or describes a character’s personality, actions, values, and motivation.
chartA visual that presents information as a graph, a diagram, or some other arrangement.
Chicago Manual of StyleA system of editing and documentation conventions published by the University of Chicago Press and used mainly in the humanities other than English. See also APA, MLA.
choppyA label for writing that is disconnected, lacking transitions and continuity.
citationFormal statement in the text, a note, or a bibliography about a source used as support in a paper.
citingStating in the text, a note, or a bibliography relevant information about a source used in a paper.
claimAn assertion of a generalization or truth. A claim represents what the writer believes to be the case.
clarityA quality of writing that seems smooth, logical, and easy to understand.
classificationA mode of discourse that places things or ideas into categories according to a consistent principle, that defines and names types or establishes a taxonomy (a naming system).
clauseA word group containing a subject, a verb, and any objects, complements, or modifiers.
clichéA phrase, metaphor, or other figure of speech that is overused and overfamiliar.
clincher sentenceA strong sentence that closes a paragraph or an argument.
clusteringA prewriting technique for generating ideas that involves drawing circles containing ideas and linking those ideas into groups of related ideas.
CMSAbbreviation for Chicago Manual of Style. A system of editing and documentation conventions published by the University of Chicago Press and used mainly in the humanities other than English.
coherenceA quality of good writing in which ideas are logical, well ordered, and well connected to one another.
cohesionThe quality of a piece of writing in which the transitions, references, and repetitions tie ideas together in a well-connected and logical sequence.
collaborative writingWriting that is authored and/or edited by two or more people.
collective nounA noun that is singular in form but refers to a group (jury, committee, audience).
colloquialInformal; more appropriate to speech than to writing.
colon (:)A mark of punctuation that introduces or points toward some concluding element, such as a list. Colons also have conventional uses, as in expressions of time.
comma (,)A punctuation mark that signals a pause, break, or separation between elements of a sentence.
comma spliceAn error in which two independent clauses are joined with only a comma and no coordinating conjunction.
common groundPoints in an argument where writer and reader agree.
common knowledgeFacts that are in general circulation and can be found in a variety of sources. Common knowledge differs across disciplines. In general, it can be used in writing without documenting a source.
common nounNouns that are not capitalized because they do not name specific persons, places or things. Compare proper nouns.
communication triangleA triangle that represents the writing situation, with the reader (or audience) at one corner, the writer (or speaker) at another, and the subject at the third. Sometimes, the text or document is represented in the middle of the triangle. The diagram helps writers think about the major elements that influence a text and the relationships that are established among the elements.
comparative formThe form of an adjective or adverb that expresses a comparison between two things: harder, more carefully.
comparison and contrastA pattern of organization in which two subjects are considered both for their similarities (comparison) and for their differences (contrast).
complementA word that follows a linking verb and renames the subject (subject complement) or that follows and renames a direct object (object complement).
complete predicateA verb and its objects, complements, and modifiers. A clause has two main parts, the subject and the predicate.
complete sentenceA word group consisting of at least one independent clause. It may also contain subordinate clauses and modifiers.
complete subjectA subject and its modifiers.
complex sentenceA sentence consisting of one independent clause and one or more subordinate clauses.
composing processAn approach to writing that involves planning, drafting, review, and revision.
compound-complex sentenceA sentence consisting of at least two independent clauses and at least one subordinate clause.
compound modifierTwo or more adjectives or adverbs or an adjective-noun combination used to describe, or modify, a noun: well-known writer; swiftly flowing river; middle-class values. Compound modifers are not separated with commas and are often joined with a hyphen. Also see noun-noun compound.
compound predicateTwo verbs or verb phrases joined with a coordinating conjunction in one clause and sharing one subject: The painter prepared the surface and applied a bonding agent.
compound sentenceA sentence consisting of two independent clauses. The clauses are usually joined with a comma and a coordinating conjunction or with a semicolon.
compound subjectTwo subjects in one clause, joined with a coordinate conjunction and sharing a predicate: The buyer and the seller will owe money at closing.
compound wordTwo or more words joined, sometimes with a hyphen, to form another word: mother-in-law, waterproof, nation-state.
concisenessCharacteristic of a writing style that wastes no words.
conclusionThe end of a text or argument. Conclusions can summarize an argument, call the audience to action, or make a final impression on the reader.
concrete detailSpecific piece of information tied to a particular observation or quality.
concrete nounA noun that points to something real, physical, observable.
conditional sentenceA sentence that sets up a condition (usually in a subordinate if or unless clause) and a result.
conjunctionA function word that joins or shows relationships between words, phrases, or clauses.
conjunctive adverbAn adverb used with a semicolon to signal logical connections between independent clauses. The most commonly used conjunctive adverbs are consequently, furthermore, however, moreover, nevertheless, then, therefore, and thus.
connotationThe meanings associated with a word that are not part of its dictionary definition.
content wordsWords that primarily carry meaning (nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs) as opposed to conveying function (articles, conjunctions, pronouns).
contextThe surrounding situation or details that help readers understand a text.
contractionA word formed by joining two words, dropping one or more letters, and signaling the dropped letters with an apostrophe.
conventionsAccepted ways of treating certain aspects of writing, based on preference, usage, or style guides.
coordinate adjectivesAdjectives in sequence that separately modify a noun. Coordinate adjectives are typically separated by commas: prompt, efficient service. See also cumulative adjectives.
coordinate clauseTwo clauses, typically independent, joined by a comma and a coordinating conjunction or by a semicolon.
coordinating conjunctionA function word used to join elements of equal grammatical form: and, but, or, nor, for, so, yet.
coordinationThe equal relation between two sentence elements—words, phrases, or clauses.
correlative conjunctionA pair of conjunctions connecting grammatically equal elements: either. . .or, neither. . .nor, whether. . .or, not only. . .but also, both. . .and.
count nounA noun that can be made singular or plural: bird, birds; stone, stones.
counterargumentA line of reasoning that would work against a writer’s thesis. A good counterargument might force a writer to qualify, amend, or abandon a thesis. A solid argument addresses counterarguments.
cover letterA letter that accompanies an enclosure, such as a résumé.
credibilityBelievability; the capacity of a writer or argument to hold up to reason and be accepted by readers. Credibility depends in part on establishing ethos, the character or the writer as represented in the discourse.
critical analysisA mode of writing that takes something apart (a book, a film, a poem, a report) and discusses its purpose and effectiveness.
critical readingAnalytical reading of a text that involves questioning the author’s positions, assumptions, evidence, and conclusions.
critical writingA mode of writing that evaluates the strengths and weaknesses of a text or event.
critiqueA mode of writing that evaluates the strengths and weaknesses of a text or event.
cumulative adjectivesAdjectives that work as a unit to modify a noun. Cumulative adjectives are not separated with commas: an internal combustion engine.
cumulative sentenceA sentence that builds up by a loose accumulation of phrases or clauses. Compare periodic sentence.
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dangling modifierA modifier (typically a verbal phrase) that does not logically refer to any word in the sentence. Driving into Chicago, the expressway passes under the old post office.
dash (— or –)A punctuation mark that sets off an element in a sentence, usually for emphasis.
databaseA structured listing, usually in electronic format, of a library’s publications and other holdings.
declarative sentenceA sentence that makes an assertion or states a fact.
deductive reasoningReasoning that applies a generalization to a specific case.
definite articleThe word the.
definitionA mode of development, or pattern of organization, based on defining terms.
deliveryA canon of rhetoric; the qualities by which a speech is delivered, including phrasing, voice patterns, and hand or body movements. With regard to writing, delivery can refer to medium (paper, electronic, multimedia) or anything connected to the way a text is presented.
demonstrative pronounA pronoun that points to a noun: this, that, these, those. It can function as a noun equivalent (This is my favorite chair) or as an adjective (This chair is my favorite).
denotationThe formal meaning of a word; its dictionary definition.
Compare connotation.
dependent clauseA word group containing a subject and a verb that cannot stand alone as a sentence. Subordinate clauses function within sentences as adjectives, adverbs, or nouns. They begin with words that mark them as subordinate: subordinating conjunctions such as although, because, if, and until or relative pronouns such as who, which, and that. Also called subordinate clause.
descriptionA mode of development, or pattern of organization characterized by descriptive detail.
determinerA noun marker, including articles, demonstrative or possessive pronouns, possessive nouns, quantifiers, and numbers: a, an, the; this; its, their; Jay’s; some, enough; three, fourteenth.
developmentThe process of strengthening an argument or exposition by adding or elaborating arguments and evidence.
dictionWord choice.
direct objectA word or word group that receives the action of the verb. The simple direct object is always a noun or a pronoun. The complete direct object includes the noun or pronoun and any modifiers. A voltmeter measures differences in electrical potential.
direct questionA question that is stated exactly as spoken; it ends in a question mark. See also indirect question.
direct quotationAn exact representation of what someone spoke or wrote; it is enclosed in quotation marks.
disciplineA formal area of study as defined by university departments or programs or distinct areas of research and publication: art history, biochemistry.
discussion forumAn online space in which users discuss topics of common interest.
divisionA mode of development, or pattern of organization, that divides a complex topic into parts.
document designThe use of fonts, spacing, color, and visuals to present a usable, attractive text.
documentationThe information a writer supplies about sources used in a piece of writing. Documentation typically consists of citations in the text of a paper and a list of sources at the end of the paper.
double comparativeA grammatical error that uses two comparative modifiers: more better.
double negativeThe inappropriate or nonstandard use of two negative words to indicate a negative meaning: Jonah does not want no juice.
double superlativeA grammatical error that uses two superlative modifiers: most simplest.
doublespeakThe intentional or inadvertent use of language to misrepresent or obscure some unpleasant truth.
draftAn unfinished manuscript. A text that needs development, rewriting, and editing.
draftingA stage in the writing process for putting sentences and paragraphs down on paper, even if in rough form.
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editingA stage in the writing process in which the writer (or an editor) fixes errors and smooths out the writing.
electronic sourcesInformation or publications that exist as digital files rather than on paper.
ellipsisThe omission of letters, punctuation, or words in a text.
ellipsis mark (. . .)Three spaced periods that indicate omitted material in a text.
elliptical clauseA clause in which some elements are missing but understood: Though [it was] written clearly on the board, the assignment was misinterpreted by half the students.
eloquenceThe art of speaking or writing well, with apt word choice (diction) and smoothly constructed sentences.
em-dash (—)A punctuation mark that separates elements; two hyphens with no spaces can substitute for a dash.
emotional appealAn appeal to the feelings of the audience to get a rise of emotion (sympathy, horror, indignation, outrage, sentimentality). Aristotle considered emotional appeal (pathos) a low form of argument, preferring logos, or logical reasoning.
emphasisThe weight or prominence given to certain words, phrases, or ideas. Good writing involves finding ways to emphasize the most important information (by placement, by highlighting, or by repetition).
end punctuation (. ? !)A mark of punctuation that signals the end of a sentence: period, question mark, exclamation point.
en-dash (–)A mark of punctuation that is longer than a hyphen but shorter than an em-dash; typically used to connect ranges of numbers.
endnoteA note that appears at the end of a text to provide bibliographic citations or supplemental information; usually keyed to the text with numbers in sequence. Also see footnote.
errorA violation of a rule of grammar or mechanics.
ESLEnglish as a second language.
essayA genre of prose nonfiction that explores a topic or makes an argument from the point of view of the writer.
ethosIn rhetoric, the character of the writer. Ethos is established directly by the writer’s presence in the text or indirectly by the arguments and appeals the writer makes. An effective writer establishes an ethos that the reader will trust and believe.
etymologyThe history of a word’s origin and meanings over time.
euphemismA word or phrase used in place of a term that some might find objectionable or that might cause embarrassment: pass on, become intimate.
evidenceObservations, data, statistics, test results, and other information used to support a claim or establish the truth of a generalization.
exact languageLanguage that is carefully chosen to be perfectly suited and precise.
exampleA mode of development, or pattern of organization, that uses a specific instance to support a more general claim.
excerptA shortened version of a longer work, usually accessed in an electronic database.
exclamation point (!)End punctuation that signals surprise or special emphasis. Many style guides recommend against overusing the exclamation point, especially in formal or academic writing.
exclamatory sentenceA sentence that ends with an exclamation point, suggesting surprise or special emphasis.
expert opinionA source of evidence in an argument that relies on someone who is highly qualified and whose respected opinion is therefore valued.
expletive1. The word there or it when used at the beginning of a sentence to delay the subject: There are several good reasons to prefer an LCD television to plasma.
2. A crude or obscene word or phrase deleted from a spoken or written text to avoid offending readers.
expositionA mode of discourse that explains or explores a topic without making an argument.
expressiveThe quality of writing that conveys the experiences and feelings of the author.
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factA claim that can be verified by evidence or observation or that is generally accepted as true.
false analogyA logical fallacy in which the writer assumes that if two things are alike in one respect they must be alike in other respects.
faulty appositionA mixed construction in which a noun phrase and its appositive do not make sense together: A musician, the job my brother had for ten years, gave him a chance to see the world.
faulty generalizationA general claim that is not supported by evidence or observations.
faulty predicationA mixed construction in which the subject and predicate do not make sense together.
feminineIn grammar, a word that denotes or connotes female properties or reference.
fictionA genre of narrative writing based on imagined events and characters; includes stories and novels.
field researchResearch that takes place outside the classroom or library.
figurative languageLanguage that is not literal but that makes meaning through connotation or association of terms.
figure of speechA construction that uses language outside its literal meaning; common figures of speech are simile and metaphor.
finite verbA verb that is in a tensed relationship with a subject.
first-person point of viewThe perspective of the writer in a text, characterized by the use of I or me (first person singular) or we or us (first person plural).
flowCharacteristic of writing that moves easily from one sentence or idea to the next; coherence. Compare awkward, choppy.
flowchartA diagram that shows a step-by-step process using graphic symbols and words.
focusThe central idea of a paragraph or an essay.
fontA named typeface or type family, such as Times New Roman, Verdana, or Arial.
footerAn area at the bottom of a page (print or online) that contains identifying text, such as a page number, filename, date, or copyright information.
footnoteA note that appears at the bottom of a page to provide bibliographic citations or supplemental information; usually keyed to the text with numbers in sequence. Also see endnote.
formal languageLanguage that follows standard conventions; used in academic writing, speeches, religious ceremonies, and political and legal events.
formatThe design of a text, including page layout, typography, and placement of visuals. Certain elements, such as bibliographic references or headings, have conventional formats.
fragmentA word group that is punctuated as a sentence but that lacks a subject, a verb, or both.
freewritingAn invention strategy that relies on continuous writing to explore a topic, without concern for format, coherence, or editing. Freewriting is intended to generate ideas that can later be given shape.
full justificationAlignment of text at both the left and the right margins.
full-text fileAn electronic file that contains a complete article (not just the title, reference information, and abstract). Many libraries provide online access to full-text versions of journals, magazines, and other publications.
function wordsNoncontent words; words that carry function, not meaning: conjunctions, interjections, articles, exclamations. See also content words.
fused sentenceAn error resulting from joining two independent clauses with no mark of punctuation and no coordinating conjunction. A type of run-on sentence. Also see comma splice.
future perfect tenseA verb tense that indicates actions that will be completed before or at a specified future time: will have spoken.
future perfect progressive formA form of the verb that indicates actions that are or will be in progress before a specified time in the future: will have been living.
future progressive formA form of the verb that indicates actions that will be in progress at a certain time in the future: will be running.
future tenseA verb tense that expresses actions that will happen at some time in the future; also used for promises or predictions of future events: will climb.
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genderMasculine, feminine, or neuter characteristic of a noun or pronoun.
gender-neutral languageLanguage that avoids sexist bias.
generalizationA broad statement intended to summarize a claim or position. Generalizations should be supported with data, evidence, or reasoning.
generic heThe third-person singular pronoun (he or his) used to represent any individual. Such use is often regarded as sexist.
generic nounA noun that denotes a typical member of a group without indicating gender; such nouns are generally treated as singular: Every actor experiences self-doubt.
genreA type of writing having conventional features of approach, point of view, language, length, and medium. Common genres include the essay, autobiography, literature review, and scientific poster.
gerundA verb form ending in -ing and used as a noun: typing, thinking.
gerund phraseA gerund (-ing verb form used as a noun) and its objects, complements, or modifiers: typing my résumé, thinking about the future. A gerund phrase always functions as a noun, usually as a subject, a subject complement, a direct object, or an object of a preposition.
global revisionA major or high-level change or improvement to a draft text.
glossaryA listing of terms and their meanings.
grammarA system of rules that governs the ways words form phrases, clauses, sentences, or paragraphs.
graphA diagram that represents the relationship of two or more variables.
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hanging indentA format in which the first line of text is aligned at the left and subsequent lines are indented. Hanging indents are particularly useful for lists and bibliographies.
hasty generalizationA claim based on insufficient or unrepresentative evidence; a logical fallacy.
head wordThe main word of a phrase, around which the phrase is built; for example, the main verb in the predicate or the main noun in a subject phrase.
headerAn area at the top of a page (in print or online) that contains identifying text, such as a page number, author’s name, or short title.
headingA short phrase that divides an essay or other text into sections. A heading is set off from the text by spacing, size, or font.
hedgeTo qualify a claim or inject some uncertainty: The exposure to radiation probably affected the fertility of the sperm. Hedging is useful to qualify claims or assertions, especially in scientific writing.
helping verbA verb used before a main verb as part of a verb phrase; a form of have, do, or be or a modal verb (can, will, shall, could, would, should, may, might, must): The technician should calibrate the scales before weighing ingredients.
homophobic languageLanguage that is biased against gays or lesbians.
hookA technique for engaging the reader and attracting interest at the beginning of a piece of writing.
HTMLHypertext markup language, a method of applying tags to textual elements and thereby controlling the appearance of text and graphics on the Web.
Hyphen (-)A mark of punctuation that joins compound words or that signals a break in a word at the end of a line of text.
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idiomSpeech form that does not follow typical language rules and cannot be understood literally.
illustration1. A mode of development, or pattern of organization, that uses a story or anecdote to illumine or explain a point.
2. A figure or diagram.
imperative moodA verb form that expresses a command; the verb is typically in the second person, with the subject you understood.
imperative sentenceA sentence that makes a command. Imperative is a category of grammatical mood.
incomplete sentenceA word group that lacks a subject, a verb, or some other sentence element but that is punctuated as a sentence. Also see fragment.
indefinite articleA or an. Also see definite article; a vs. an in the glossary of usage.
indefinite pronounA pronoun that refers to a nonspecific person or thing. The most common indefinite pronouns are all, another, any, anybody, anyone, anything, both, each, either, everybody, everyone, everything, few, many, neither, nobody, none, no one, nothing, one, some, somebody, someone, something.
indentExtra space before the first word of a paragraph (paragraph indent) or to the left and sometimes right of an entire passage of text (block indent).
independent clauseA word group containing a subject and a verb that can or does stand alone as a sentence. Every sentence consists of at least one independent clause. In addition, many sentences contain subordinate clauses that function as adjectives, adverbs, or nouns.
index1. A directory of items in a collection, such as articles in periodicals, arranged alphabetically or chronologically in categories such as date, author, keyword, subject, and so on.
2. An alphabetical list at the back of a book or other work that points to individual topics in the work.
indicative moodA verb form that expresses a statement or an assertion.
indirect objectA noun or pronoun that names to whom or for whom the action of a verb is done. An indirect object, when there is one, comes before the direct object.
indirect questionA statement that reports a question rather than stating the question exactly as it was uttered: She asked how to qualify for an exemption.
indirect quotationA statement that reports something someone said rather than quoting the exact words: The agent said that severe weather in the Midwest was causing countless delays.
inductive reasoningThe act of drawing conclusions or making generalizations from observations, examples, or facts.
infinitive phraseAn infinitive and its objects, complements, or modifiers. An infinitive phrase can function as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb.
infinitiveA form of the verb that is not in a tensed relationship with the subject. The word to followed by the base form of a verb: to dream, to guide.
inflated languageLanguage that is unnecessarily wordy or too formal for the situation.
inflectionA suffix (or affix) that changes the meaning of a word (for example, any ending that changes the number, person, case, gender, or tense).
initialismAn abbreviation made from the first letters of a string of related words:
integrating sourcesThe act of combining source material with the writer’s words in a piece of writing.
intensive pronounA pronoun that emphasizes a noun or another pronoun: myself, yourselves.
interjectionA word expressing surprise or emotion.
interrogative pronounA pronoun used to open a question: who, whom, whose, which, what.
interrogative sentenceA sentence that asks a question. Interrogative is a category of grammatical mood.
interrogative tagA word or phrase attached to a sentence that turns a statement into a question.
intersentential grammarThe patterns of reference, transition, or repetition that connect sentences together into cohesive text.
in-text citationInformation in a text that indicates that a source is being cited and either offers or points to the full documentation.
intonationThe sound pattern that characterizes a sentence when spoken aloud. The rising or falling tone or increasing or decreasing volume of a spoken sentence.
intransitive verbA verb that does not take a direct object. If any words follow an intransitive verb, they are adverbs or word groups functioning as adverbs.
introductionThe opening of a text; it can set the context, establish the scope of discussion, identify issues, or state the writer’s position or thesis.
inventionThe act of producing ideas to be used in a text.
inverted sentenceA sentence in which the subject comes after the verb.
irregular verbA verb that does not form the past tense or past participle by the simple addition of -d or -ed. Irregular verbs form the past tense in a variety of ways.
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jargonSpecialized language or terminology used among members of a specific group, profession, or trade.
journal1. A publication containing articles, editorials, and reviews that is issued on a regular schedule (weekly, monthly, quarterly, etc.). See also periodical.
2. A diary or personal record of experiences, ideas, or reflections.
journalist’s questionsQuestions asked by journalists to gather information for a complete story: Who? What? Where? When? Why? How?
justificationThe vertical alignment of text along the left margin, the right margin, or both (full justification).
justified textText that is aligned at both the left and the right margins.
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key wordAn important term within a passage that may be repeated exactly or with synonyms to establish coherence and emphasis.
keywordA term that organizes information in a library catalog or database and that can be used to search the catalog or database.
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layoutThe arrangement of text and other elements, such as headings, on a page or screen; overall design of a printed page or a computer screen.
leadThe opening sentence or paragraph of a newspaper story. Also spelled lede by journalists.
limiting modifierAn adjective or adverb that limits, or qualifies, the meaning of an adjective, a verb, or another adverb. Common limiting modifiers are only, almost, even, nearly, not, and just. To avoid ambiguity, a limiting modifier should be placed directly before the word it modifies.
line graphA chart that plots a line to show frequency or quantity over time. Used for continuous data.
line spacingThe vertical white space that separates lines of text. Line spacing can be single, double, 1.5, or custom values.
line of argumentThe reasoning used to argue a point.
linking verbA verb that connects a subject to a subject complement, a word or word group that renames or describes the subject. The most common linking verbs are forms of be: be, am, is, are, was, were, being, been. The following verbs sometimes function as linking verbs: appear, become, feel, grow, look, make, seem, smell, sound, and taste.
literalRelated to something that is factual. See also denotation.
literary present tensePreferred tense for discussing or interpreting literary texts (poems, novels, plays, short stories): Hemingway writes about alienated individuals.
literature reviewAn academic genre in which the writer reports on and evaluates research that has been published in a particular field about a particular topic. (Literature refers to published writing, not to literary texts.)
logicThe science of thinking based on clear, careful, and explicit reasoning. Logic involves induction (moving from observations to conclusions) and deduction (moving from general principles to explanations of specific observations).
logicalDisplaying clear thinking, careful linking of ideas, and good support for generalizations.
logical faultAn error, sometimes called a fallacy, in the way ideas are put together, conclusions reached, or evidence used in an argument.
logosThe persuasive element of communication that relies on logic or reason. In rhetoric, one of three appeals (the others being pathos and ethos).
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magazineA periodical containing articles, stories, and other writing published regularly for a popular audience. See also journal.
main verbThe verb that states the main action or state of being. Contrast helping verb and modal.
manuscriptText that is being written and edited before publication or release.
masculineIn grammar, a word that denotes or connotes male properties or reference.
mass nounA noun that represents something that cannot be counted; it does not have a plural form. Also called noncount noun. See also count noun.
mechanicsIn grammar, a general term for the conventional ways of representing information (such as dates, titles, abbreviations, quantities, and so on).
mediumThe form in which a text is produced: print, online, broadcast.
memoA primary genre of business correspondence, typically brief and intended for internal communication.
menu barThe top bar of a software screen containing drop-down menus for various file activities.
metaphorA figure of speech that directly compares two seemingly unrelated terms.
misplaced modifierA word or phrase that modifies another word or phrase in a way that is not grammatically logical or precise.
mixed constructionA sentence whose elements do not sensibly fit together. The mismatch may be a matter of grammar or of logic.
mixed metaphorThe combination of two or more figures of speech that don’t make sense together.
MLASee Modern Language Association.
modal verbA helping verb that indicates permission, obligation, or certainty: can, may, might, must, could, shall, should, will, would.
Modern Language AssociationThe professional association of university departments of English and foreign languages and literatures. The MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers sets conventions for manuscript preparation and documentation in the humanities. MLA style refers to those guidelines.
modeStrategies through which texts are developed: narration, description, persuasion, definition, analysis, classification, comparison and contrast, or cause and effect. Many texts use more than one mode to develop ideas.
modifierA word, phrase, or clause that describes or qualifies the meaning of another word, phrase, or clause. Modifiers include adjectives, adverbs, prepositional phrases, participial phrases, infinitive phrases, and adjective and adverb clauses.
moodCharacteristic of a verb that indicates whether it is making a statement (indicative), issuing a command (imperative), asking a question (interrogative), or stating a wish, request, or condition contrary to fact (subjunctive).
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narrationA genre of writing that tells a story, usually with events that unfold over time.
negatorA word that turns a positive statement or question into a negative. Negators include not, none, nor, and neither.
neologismA new word in the language, either invented or borrowed from another language.
neuterIn grammar, a word that does not denote or connote either male or female properties or reference.
nominalAny word or phrase that fills the role of a noun; includes pronouns, some verbals, and any phrase that is in the role of subject or object.
nominalizationA noun form made by adding a suffix to a verb form, such as payment (from pay), decision (from decide), or translation (from translate). Rephrasing nominalizations as active verbs often will improve writing style. She translated the Italian story into English rather than She made a translation of the Italian story into English.
nominative caseThe form of nouns or pronouns used as subjects or subject complements.
noncount nounA noun that represents something that cannot be counted; it does not have a plural form: milk, garbage, fortitude, beauty. See also count noun.
nonfictionA genre of writing that presents facts and discusses real events and people.
nonrestrictive modifierA phrase or clause that adds a nonessential detail or characteristic. Nonrestrictive modifiers are set off with commas. See also restrictive modifier.
non sequiturA logical fallacy characterized by a statement that does not follow logically from what came before.
nonsexist languageLanguage that is free of bias based on gender or sexual stereotypes.
nonstandard EnglishLanguage that is not typical of the usage or grammar of standard written English.
noteElement that appears at the bottom of a page or the end of a paper to provide bibliographic citations or supplemental information; usually keyed to the text with numbers in sequence.
nounThe name of a person, a place, a thing, or an idea.
noun clauseA subordinate clause that functions as a noun, usually as a subject, a subject complement, or a direct object. Noun clauses usually begin with how, who, whom, that, what, whether, or why.
noun-noun compoundA noun used in sequence with one or more other nouns: Vaccine adverse event reporting system, acid gas sorbent material. Such phrases are often used in specialized fields and can be difficult for lay readers.
noun equivalentA word or word group that functions like a noun; it can be a pronoun, a noun and its modifiers, a gerund phrase, an infinitive phrase, or a noun clause.
noun marker1. A word that modifies a noun, especially articles, adjectives, and some pronouns.
2. A suffix that signals that a word is a noun: -ness, -ity, -ence, and so on.
noun/adjectiveA noun functioning as an adjective to modify another noun: emergency preparedness.
novelA long narrative work of fiction.
numberA grammatical category of nouns and pronouns that indicates whether a word is singular or plural. Subjects and verbs must agree in number, as must pronouns and antecedents.
numbered listA list organized numerically; usually used for steps in a procedure, items ranked in importance, or a chronology of events.
numeralThe symbol for a number.
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objectSee direct object; indirect object; object of a preposition.
object complementA word or word group that renames or describes a direct object. It always appears after the direct object: They declared their business bankrupt.
objective caseA grammatical indicator that a pronoun is used as an object.
object of a prepositionThe noun or noun equivalent that follows a preposition: in the region, behind the curve.
objectivityThe quality of being nonbiased, logical, and impersonal in reasoning or writing.
offensive languageLanguage that is likely to offend the audience because it is sexist, racist, nationalistic, or otherwise not respectful of difference.
omissionSomething left out, as a word or phrase.
openerThe introductory part of a piece of writing that sets the stage, grabs attention, offers a telling fact, or defines a controversial issue.
opinionA position formed by personal belief as opposed to objective evidence. Opinion may or may not be reliable and may or may not be based on relevant expertise.
opposing argumentAn argument that takes a position different from the writer’s. A good argument takes a clear position and addresses opposing arguments. See also counterargument.
organizationThe way a piece of writing is divided and arranged.
outlineA structured listing, in phrases or full sentences, of the key points in a piece of writing.
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paragraphA group of related sentences.
paragraph spacingThe white space that separates paragraphs or sections of text.
parallel structureExpression of similar ideas in similar grammatical form: The finance reforms were good for the home owners but bad for the banks.
paraphraseA restatement by a writer of a source’s words or ideas in the writer’s own words.
Parentheses ( )A mark of punctuation that sets off a group of words from surrounding text. Parentheses are always used in pairs to enclose information that comments, elaborates, adds details, or inserts nonessential information.
parenthetical citationA method of documenting a source within a text by providing brief information in parentheses about the source. Academic disciplines vary in their style for parenthetical citation.
parenthetical elementNonessential information enclosed in parentheses, brackets, dashes, or commas.
participial phraseA present or past participle and its objects, complements, or modifiers. A participial phrase always functions as an adjective describing a noun or pronoun. Usually it appears before or after the word it modifies. Also see verbal.
participleA form of a verb that works as a modifier. The -ing form is a present participle (the meandering creek); the -ed or -en form is a past participle (the statement printed on the reverse). Also see verbal.
participle, pastA verb form usually ending in -d, -ed, -n, -en, or -t and functioning as part of a main verb or as an adjective: driven, walked, understood.
participle, presentA verb form ending in -ing and functioning as part of a main verb or as an adjective: Addressing the audience, Geoff spoke directly to those who were attending their first conference.
particleA word that looks like a preposition but that is so closely associated with a verb that it is part of its meaning: look up, give in.
parts of speechClassification of words as nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections. Many words can function as more than one part of speech.
passive transformationConversion of a sentence in the active voice to the passive voice.
passive voiceA verb is in the passive voice when the subject receives the action of the verb: The butterfly was caught by Joan.
past participleA verb form usually ending in -d, -ed, -n, -en, or -t and functioning as part of a main verb or as an adjective: Laws are not written in stone.
past perfect tenseA verb tense, formed with had plus the past participle, that indicates an action completed before another action in the past: had spoken.
past progressive formA verb form indicating an action that was in progress at a specific time in the past: were swimming.
patchwritingParaphrasing of an original source by "patching" your synonyms into a source's sentence structure or by mixing the source's words with your own without citation. A form of plagiarism.
pathosAn appeal to the emotions of the audience.
patterns of developmentTypical ways of developing ideas within paragraphs: analogy, cause and effect, classification, comparison and contrast, definition, description, division, example, illustration, narration, process.
PDFPortable document format, a type of electronic file that is relatively stable across hardware configurations.
peer editingA process whereby writers edit or review other writers’ work.
peer review1. The act of analyzing and commenting upon another person’s writing to improve the focus, argument, organization, or style.
2. A quality-control process whereby essays or other written material is not published unless experts have reviewed it and approved it. Reputable academic journals and books are peer-reviewed, often in a double-blind process in which neither author nor reviewers know each other’s identity.
perfect tensesVerb tenses (present perfect, past perfect, future perfect) that signal that an action was or will be completed at the time of another action.
periodA mark of punctuation that signals the end of a full clause.
periodic sentenceA sentence in which modifiers build up at the beginning of the sentence to a climax at the end.
periodicalA publication issued on a regular basis (weekly, monthly, and so on). See journal, magazine.
permissionsThe right to use an image or text in a publication or Web site.
personCharacteristic of a pronoun that indicates whether it refers to the speaker (first person), the one spoken to (second person), or the one spoken about (third person).
personaThe role or character projected by the author through the text, based on style choices that create a voice or presence.
personal pronounOne of the following pronouns, used to refer to a person or thing: I, me, you, she, her, he, him, it, we, us, they, them.
perspectiveThe point of view of the writer; it can be first person, second person, or third person.
persuasionA mode of writing that attempts to convince an audience to accept a thesis or argument.
phrasal verbA verb with one or more attached particles that create a special, idiomatic meaning: give up on, put out, run down.
phraseA word group that lacks a subject, a verb, or both. Most phrases function within sentences as adjectives, as adverbs, or as nouns.
phrasingA writer’s style as shaped by word choice and word combinations.
pie chartA graph that uses a circle diagram to compare a part or parts to the whole. The segments of the pie represent proportional percentages of the whole (100%).
plagiarismUse of the ideas, images, or language of another writer without proper citation and documentation.
planningA stage in the writing process that involves gathering and organizing ideas and information.
pluralCharacteristic of a noun or pronoun that indicates that it represents more than one.
point of viewThe perspective from which a story is written: first person, second person, or third person.
point1. A claim that a writer makes in an argument.
2. A measure of the size of a font.
possessive caseA grammatical indicator that a noun or pronoun shows ownership. Nouns generally take an apostrophe and -s to show possession; pronouns have possessive forms: hers, its, their, and so on.
possessive nounA noun that shows ownership.
possessive pronounA pronoun that shows ownership.
post hoc fallacyA logical error characterized by an assumption that because something follows an event, it is caused by that event.
précisA brief summary of a text in one’s own words.
predicateA verb and its objects, complements, and modifiers.
predicate adjectiveA subject complement; an adjective or adjective phrase that follows a linking verb and describes the subject.
predicate nounA subject complement; a noun or noun phrase that follows a linking verb and completes or is equivalent to the subject.
prefixAn element attached to the beginning of a word that changes its meaning: predetermine, unnatural.
premiseA point or position in an argument that is presumed at the outset.
prepositionA word placed before a noun or noun equivalent to form a phrase modifying another word in the sentence.
prepositional phraseA phrase beginning with a preposition and ending with a noun or noun equivalent (called the object of the preposition): in the running, about town, over the limit. Most prepositional phrases function as adjectives or adverbs.
present participleA verb form ending in -ing and functioning as part of a main verb or as an adjective: falling leaves; were grading.
present perfect tenseA verb tense indicating an action that began in the past and continues to the present: has monitored.
present progressive formA form of the verb that indicates an action taking place and continuing in the present: are riding.
pretentious languageLanguage that is overblown, ornate, and wordy.
prewritingA stage in the writing process that involves planning and invention. Prewriting is any productive writing activity prior to writing a draft.
primary sourceAn original source or document (such as a diary, poem, photograph, treaty, or court opinion). See also secondary source.
principal partsThe basic forms of any verb: base form, past tense, past participle, present participle, -s form: drive, drove, driven, driving, drives.
process approachAn approach to writing that breaks the process into stages: prewriting, drafting, reviewing, revising, publishing.
progressive verb formA form of a verb that indicates a continuing action: was working, will be meeting. See present progressive, past progressive, future progressive.
pronounA word used in place of a noun. Usually the pronoun substitutes for a specific noun, known as its antecedent.
pronoun-antecedent agreementThe grammatical principle that a pronoun and the noun it represents (its antecedent) must agree in number (singular, plural) and gender (masculine, feminine, neuter).
pronoun caseAn indicator of the role a pronoun plays in relation to other words: subjective (for subjects and subject complements), objective (for objects), and possessive (for ownership).
pronoun referenceThe relation between a pronoun and the word it refers to, its antecedent.
pronoun shiftAn inappropriate change in person, number, or gender in the pronouns in a text.
proofreadingReading a text carefully to catch any typographical errors, inconsistencies, grammatical errors, or other problems.
proper adjectiveAn adjective derived from a proper noun: Siberian, Napoleonic.
proper nounA noun that is capitalized because it names a specific geographic place, person, or organization: Rocky Mountains, Alfred Einstein, American Federation of Labor.
propositionA claim or position or stand advocated by a writer.
proseA written text that is not poetry.
prosodyThe patterns of rhythm, stress, and intonation that characterize a written text (prose).
punctuationA system of graphic marks that show relations and boundaries between words, phrases, and sentences.
purposeThe aim of a writer; what the writer hopes to accomplish with a text. Good writers also consider the purposes of their intended readers.
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quantifierA modifier that expresses approximate amounts or specific quantities: some, enough, five.
quotationThe representation of the words someone said or wrote. A quotation can be direct (the exact words) or indirect (a reporting or paraphrase of what was said).
quotation marksA mark of punctuation that encloses direct quotations or titles of short works.
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racistCharacteristic of language or behavior that stereotypes people because of their race or nationality.
reciprocal pronounA singular pronoun that refers to individual parts of a plural antecedent: each other, one another.
recursiveReferring to a process that repeats itself. Writing is often described as recursive because writers repeat parts of the process, such as researching, revising, and editing.
red herring fallacyA logical error, characterized by the introduction of a fact or piece of evidence that is irrelevant to the argument or topic under discussion.
reduced clauseA clause with elements that are missing but understood: While [it was] not pretty, the win still counted. See also elliptical clause.
redundancyLanguage that needlessly repeats words or phrases.
reference listAn end-of-text list of the works consulted as background and support for a text. Depending on the discipline or style guide, a reference list can be arranged alphabetically by authors’ last names or in order of mention in the text. Also see bibliography; works cited list.
reference1. In grammar, the relation of one word to another, especially of a pronoun to its antecedent.
2. A work consulted for information in the writing process.
reference worksGeneral and specialized encyclopedias, dictionaries, almanacs, atlases, and biographical references, available in print or electronic format. Such works often serve as a good overview of a subject and include references to the most significant works on a topic.
reflective writingA genre that examines the writer’s thinking, feelings, values, or beliefs as a result of some experience.
reflexive pronounA pronoun that names a receiver of an action identical with the doer of the action: myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves.
regional expressionUsage that is current and accepted in some communities but may not be in others.
registerThe tone of a text: formal, casual, conversational, intimate, religious, vulgar. Register is established by situation, context, diction, phrasing, and content.
register violationThe use of a word or phrase that is out of place in a text, that does not fit or is poorly chosen or inappropriate with regard to the level of formality.
regular verbA verb whose past tense and past participle are formed by adding –ed or –d to the base form: walk, walked, walked. Also see irregular verb.
relative adverbThe word when, where, or why used to introduce an adjective clause.
relative clauseAn adjective clause beginning with who, whom, whose, which, that, when, or where.
relative pronounOne of the following words, when used to introduce an adjective clause: who, whom, whose, which, that.
repetitionUse of the same word or phrase more than once in close proximity. Repetition is sometimes effective for emphasis, but often it can be edited out for conciseness.
research questionThe main question that a research project seeks to answer.
restrictive modifierA phrase or clause that adds an essential detail or characteristic. Restrictive modifiers are not set off with commas. See also nonrestrictive modifier.
résuméA document that highlights a job applicant’s education, skills, and experience.
reviewerSomeone who reads and responds to a text by identifying strengths, weaknesses, and areas of potential improvement.
revisingA stage in the writing process that involves making major changes to a text and its ideas; revising might involve rethinking, conducting new research, reorganizing, and reworking a text.
rewritingA stage in the writing process that involves making major changes to a text.
rhetoricThe study of effective writing and speaking.
rhetorical situationThe context for writing, including the audience, purpose, and occasion. Analyzing the rhetorical situation is the initial step in the writing process.
rhetorical triangleA triangle that represents the writing situation, with the reader (or audience) at one corner, the writer (or speaker) at another, and the subject at the third. Sometimes the text or document is represented as in the middle of the triangle. The diagram helps writers think about the major elements that influence a text and the relationships that are established between the elements.
rule1. In grammar, a guideline for language and usage.
2. A line that separates sections of the printed page or computer screen.
run-on sentenceAn error in which a sentence contains two or more clauses that have not been joined correctly. See comma splice; fused sentence.
running titleA short title that appears in the header of every page.
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-s form of verbThe form of the verb used with third-person singular subjects: does, exhibits, tranquilizes.
sans serifReferring to a plain font, without variations in thick or thin strokes, especially at the tops and bottoms of the letters.
schemeA rhetorical figure that plays upon grammar or word order to achieve an interesting effect. Some schemes include asyndeton, chiasmus, and inversion.
scopeThe extent of coverage of a text.
search engineA portal such as Google or Yahoo that allows searching the Web with keywords.
search termA word or phrase entered in a database or search window that seeks targeted information.
secondary sourceA book, article, or other document that comments, reviews, explains or annotates a primary source.
second personPerspective of the person spoken to: you.
semicolonA mark of punctuation that joins major sentence elements of equal grammatical rank, especially independent clauses without a coordinating conjunction and items in a series with internal punctuation.
sentenceA word group expressing a complete thought and consisting of at least one independent clause.
sentence combiningA revision strategy that involves using coordination and subordination to join short sentences to make longer, more complex sentences.
sentence fragmentA word group that is punctuated as a sentence but that lacks a subject, a verb, or both.
sentence varietyA desirable quality of writing style, characterized by sentences that are varied in structure, length, phrasing, and diction.
sexist languageBiased language that demeans men or women by relying on gender stereotypes.
shiftA change, often unintentional and inappropriate, in tense, person (point of view), or number.
signal phraseA phrase that cues and introduces the use of source material, usually by naming the author of the material: According to Sherry Thompson. . .; As argued by Frankin.. . .
simileAn explicit comparison, usually introduced by like or as: She was like a lion on the prowl.
simple sentenceA word group consisting of one independent clause and no subordinate clauses.
simple subjectThe subject considered apart from any modifiers: One of the simplest maxims is to love thy neighbor.
simple tenseA verb form that expresses simple time relations: past, present, and future.
singularCharacteristic of a noun or pronoun that indicates that it represents only one.
slangVery informal, nonstandard language, characterized by casual, inventive usage and often understood only by group insiders.
slash (/)A mark of punctuation used to show alternatives or to show divisions in Web addresses.
sourceResearched information—in the form of books, articles, Web pages, audiovisual materials—used to support an argument or exposition.
special collectionsThe area of a library that houses and preserves especially valuable, rare, or historic documents.
specific detailSupport for generalizations in the form of specific facts, instances, examples, illustrations, or evidence.
split infinitiveA grammatical form in which a modifier appears between the parts of the infintiive (to and the base form of the verb): to quickly run. Split infinitives are best avoided unless an awkward construction would result.
square brackets [ ]A mark of punctuation used to enclose words added to a direct quotation or to enclose a passage that itself has internal parentheses.
standard EnglishThe generally accepted usage in academic, business, and professional fields.
stereotypeA hasty generalization about a group; an assumption that a characteristic that applies to some people in a group applies to everyone in that group.
stressWeight or emphasis placed on a certain elements in a phrase, clause, or sentence. English sentences naturally have end stress (or end weight).
structureThe order imposed on a group of sentences or paragraphs.
structured questionsAn invention strategy involving a systematic set of questions used to explore a topic, such as the journalist’s questions.
style1. A general term to describe the written quality of a text. Style is influenced by word choice (diction), phrasing, sentence structure, format, point of view, and other features of a text. Style can be smooth or awkward, polished or bureaucratic, economical or prolix.
2. Guidelines for grammar, usage, citation, and documentation within a particular discipline. See APA; Chicago; MLA.
style manualA reference book that presents the conventions for writing and manuscript format for a given discipline. See APA; Chicago; MLA.
style tagA marker attached to an element in an electronic text that defines its format or function. Style tags allow text to be printed or displayed with fidelity across hardware configurations, software applications, and Web browsers.
subject1. Grammatically, a word or word group that names who or what a sentence is about.
2. Rhetorically, what a text is about.
subject complementA word or word group that follows a linking verb and either renames or describes the subject: His personal trainer was an old friend. If it describes the subject, it is an adjective. If the subject complement renames the subject, it is a noun or a noun equivalent.
subject of infinitiveThe noun or pronoun that is doing the action expressed in an infinitive phrase: The agency required her to pay in advance. Subjects of infinitives are in the objective case.
subject-verb agreementThe grammatical principle that subjects and verbs agree in number (singular, plural) and person (first, second, third).
subjective caseA grammatical indicator that a pronoun is used as a subject or a subject complement.
subjectivityThe quality of being centered on one’s own perceptions and opinions. Subjectivity stresses that our views inevitably reflect individual senses, thoughts, feelings, and experiences.
subject-verb-object (s-v-o) sentenceThe normal sentence order of English: An active-voice sentence, with a subject doing the action, the action expressed in a transitive verb, and an object receiving the action: Jane cooked a red snapper.
subjunctive moodCharacteristic of a verb that states a wish, a request, or a condition contrary to fact: If I were younger.. . .
subordinate clauseA word group containing a subject and a verb that cannot stand alone as a sentence. Subordinate clauses function within sentences as adjectives, adverbs, or nouns. They begin with words that mark them as subordinate: subordinating conjunctions such as although, because, if, and until or relative pronouns such as who, which, and that. Also called dependent clause.
subordinating conjunctionA word that introduces a subordinate clause and indicates its relation to the rest of the sentence: because, although, while, even though.
subordinationThe act of making sentence elements—clauses, phrases, and words— grammatically dependent.
suffixAn ending added to a word that changes its meaning or part of speech: disposable; accordance. Also see prefix.
summaryA brief recounting, in a writer’s own words, of the major argument, the main points, or the meaning of a text.
superlative formThe form of an adjective or adverb that expresses a comparison among three or more things: hardest, most carefully.
supportThe material that backs up or provides evidence for a claim, a generalization, or a thesis.
syllogismA logical inference from major premise to minor premise to conclusion: All insects have six legs. A bee is an insect. A bee has six legs.
synonymA word with a meaning that is very similar to that of another word.
syntaxThe way in which words are used together to form phrases, clauses, and sentences.
synthesisThe act of combining ideas from different sources with your own ideas in an argument, an analysis, or an investigative paper.
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tableA visual that uses rows and columns to display numerical data or other information.
tagA descriptive word attached to Web information that categorizes and relates that information to other, similar information. A social networking tool.
tenseThe system of meaning expressed in verb forms that relates to time (past, present, or future).
tense shiftAn inappropriate change from one tense to another within a sentence or across related sentences.
thesisThe central argument or main point of an academic paper. A thesis statement declares the author’s position, often in a single, well-crafted sentence.
textAny written document: report, exposition, essay.
thesaurusA reference book or other source that presents synonyms, words close in meaning to a search term.
third personPerspective of the person spoken about: he/she/it (singular), they (plural), or any singular or plural noun.
toneAn aspect of writing style resulting from word choice (diction), phrasing, and content. The tone of a piece of writing might be formal or informal, serious or playful, insulting or admiring, and so on.
topicWhat a sentence, paragraph, or longer composition is about; the focus of a piece of writing.
topic sentenceA sentence that clearly states the topic or focus of a paragraph.
transcribeTo record spoken language in written form, as from an interview or conversation.
transferA logical fallacy that involves associating a prestigious name or person with the writer’s side, in the hope that the good associations will rub off on the writer’s argument.
transitionA word or phrase that connects ideas or sentences in a text. Some common transitional expressions are meanwhile, to return to the main argument, in fact, however, furthermore.
transitive verbA verb that expresses an action and takes a direct object.
triteA derogatory label for writing or diction that is too obvious or too simple to be worth stating.
tropeA general term for figurative language that plays on meaning. Some common tropes are metaphor, simile, personification, and metonymy.
trustworthy sourceA source of information that is credible and useful in an academic or work context because of the authority or expertise of the writer of the source.
two-word verbSee phrasal verb.
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understood subjectThe subject you when it is not actually present in the sentence: Get to know the opposition. Understood subjects occur in sentences that issue commands or advice (imperative mood).
understood youThe subject you when it is not actually present in the sentence: Listen to the advice of your mentors. Understood subjects occur in sentences that issue commands or advice (imperative mood).
unifiedHaving a tightly controlled topical focus.
URLAn initialism for uniform resource locator, a Web address.
usageThe conventions or preferences of individuals or groups for word choice, phrasing, punctuation, and the like.
usage labelPart of a dictionary entry that indicates when, where, or under what conditions a particular meaning for a word is appropriately used. Common labels are informal (or colloquial), slang, nonstandard, dialect, obsolete, archaic, poetic, and British.
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valueA belief in the worth of something, generally not arguable or subject to reasoning on the basis of evidence. Values are often worth identifying but unlikely to prove a point.
vagueCharacteristic of writing that is not precise, focused, exact, or clear.
verbA word that expresses action (jump, think) or being (is, was, seems). A sentence’s verb is composed of a main verb possibly preceded by one or more helping verbs.
verb formsVerbs have five forms: the base form, or dictionary form (walk, ride); the past tense (walked, rode); the past participle (walked, ridden); the present participle (walking, riding); and the -s form (walks, rides). The verb be has eight forms: be, am, is, are, was, were, being, been.
verb phraseThe main verb plus any helping verbs, particles, negators, or other modifiers.
verbalA verb form that functions as a noun or an adjective, not as the main verb of a clause. Verbals include infinitives (to sing), present participles (singing), and past participles (sung).
verbal phraseA verbal plus its objects or modifiers: Writing for the minority, Judge Stevens argued that the no-fault divorce laws should prevent any claim for damages.
vertical listA list formatted so each item appears on its own line, as in a bullet list.
visualA chart, photograph, drawing, or table in a document.
visual rhetoricAll the ways in which a text is designed to communicate information visually.
voice1. The form of the verb that indicates the relation of the action of the verb to the subject: active (subject performs the action) or passive (subject receives the action or is acted upon).
2. The character or personality of the writer as expressed through the style of writing.
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warrantA reason or principle on which evidence can be accepted in support of a claim.
Web résuméA Web-based document that highlights a job applicant’s education, skills, and experience.
white spaceThe open space on a page that is not occupied by type or visuals.
wikiA collaborative, multiauthored Web site.
wordinessCharacteristic of writing that is not concise or efficient, that uses too many words or too much redundancy to make its point.
working bibliographyA preliminary list of sources for an academic paper, containing items that might be useful eventually as support in the paper.
works cited listAn end-of-text list of the print or electronic works consulted as background and support for a text; arranged alphabetically by authors’ last names. Works cited list is the term used in MLA style in English and other humanities. See also bibliography; reference list.
writer’s blockDifficulty getting started or continuing to draft a text.
writing across the curriculumThe uses and practices of writing to stimulate learning in classrooms or labs in all subjects.
writing in the disciplinesThe particular ways of writing and types of texts (genres) that characterize different disciplines.
writing situationThe occasion, motivation, and setting that create a need to write a text.
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XMLInitialism for extensible markup language, a language for Web texts that tags elements based on object type definitions.
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