15.5 Summary

Theories of Late Adulthood

1. Self theories hold that adults make personal choices in ways that allow them to become fully themselves. One such theory arises from Erikson’s last stage, integrity versus despair, in which individuals seek integrity that connects them to the human community.

2. Research finds substantial continuity over adulthood in the Big Five personality traits. The positivity effect and a tendency toward self-actualization also can be seen as part of the drive to become more oneself.

3. Compulsive hoarding can be understood as an effort to hold onto the self, keeping objects from the past that others might consider worthless.

4. Stratification theories maintain that social forces—such as ageism, racism, and sexism—limit personal choices throughout the life span, keeping people on a particular level or stratum of society.

5. Age stratification can be blamed for the disengagement of older adults. Activity theory counters disengagement theory, stressing that older people need to be active.

6. Because of earlier discrimination and past experiences—in health, education, and employment—people who are from low-income backgrounds, especially if they are from minority ethnic groups, have a more difficult old age. This does not seem true if they reach very old age, 90 and older.

Activities in Late Adulthood

7. At every age, employment can provide social and personal satisfaction as well as needed income. However, retirement may be welcomed by the elderly, if they remain active in other ways.

8. Some elderly people perform volunteer work and are active politically—writing letters, voting, staying informed. These activities enhance health and well-being and benefit the larger society.

9. Common among retirees are an increase in religious activity (but not attendance at places of worship) and a wish to age in place. Many of the elderly engage in home improvement or redecoration, preferring to stay in their own homes and attend their local house of worship.

Friends and Relatives

10. A romantic partner is the most important member of a person’s social convoy. Older adults in long-standing marriages tend to be satisfied with their relationships and to safeguard each other’s health. As a result, married elders tend to live longer, happier, and healthier lives than unmarried ones.

11. Elders who have never married tend to have many friends. Everyone needs someone who is a close confidant.

12. Relationships with adult children and grandchildren are usually mutually supportive, although conflicts arise as well. Financially, elders more often support the younger generations than vice versa.

13. Most of the elderly prefer to maintain their independence, living alone, but some become surrogate parents, raising their grandchildren. This adds stress to the older generation, especially when it occurs suddenly because the middle generation is unfit or unable to care for the children.

The Frail Elderly

14. Most elderly people are self-sufficient, but some eventually become frail. They need help with their activities of daily life, either with physical tasks (such as eating and bathing) or with instrumental ones (such as completing income taxes and comparing transportation options).

15. Care of the frail elderly is usually undertaken by adult children or spouses, who are often elderly themselves. Most families have a strong sense of filial responsibility, although elder abuse may occur when the stress of care is great and social support is lacking.

16. Nursing homes, assisted living, and professional home care are of varying quality and availability. Each of these arrangements can provide necessary and beneficial care, but they do not always do so. Good care for the frail elderly involves a combination of professional and family support, recognizing diversity in needs and personality.