8.5 Summary

The Nature of the Child

1. All theories of development acknowledge that school-age children become more independent and capable in many ways.

2. Erikson emphasized industry, when children busily strive to master various tasks. If they are unable to do so, they feel inferior. Freud described a latency period, when psychosexual needs

are quiet.

3. Children develop their self-concept during middle childhood, basing it on a more realistic assessment of their competence than they had in earlier years.

4. Children need to develop pride in themselves and in their background, although very high self-esteem is not valued in every culture.

5. Both daily hassles and major stresses take a toll on children, with accumulated stresses more likely to impair development than any single event on its own. The child’s interpretation of the situation and the availability of supportive adults, peers, and institutions aid resilience.

Families and Children

6. Families influence children in many ways, as do genes and peers. Although most siblings share a childhood home and parents, each sibling experiences different (non-shared) circumstances within the family.

7. The five functions of a supportive family are to satisfy children’s physical needs; to encourage learning; to nurture friendships; to foster self-respect; and to provide a safe, stable, and harmonious home.

8. The most common family structure worldwide is the nuclear family, usually with other relatives nearby. Other two-parent families include adoptive, same-sex, grandparent, and stepparent families, each of which often functions well for children. However, each also has vulnerabilities.

9. Generally, it seems better for children to live with two parents rather than one because a parental alliance can support children’s development. Single-parent families tend to be less stable, with changes in where they live and who belongs to the family. Children are stressed by new circumstances and conditions, especially in middle childhood.

10. Income affects family function. Poor children are at greater risk for emotional and behavioural problems because the stresses that often accompany poverty hinder effective parenting. High income may be stressful as well. No matter what the family SES, instability and conflict are harmful.

The Peer Group

11. Peers teach crucial social skills during middle childhood. Each cohort of children has a culture, passed down from slightly older children. Close friends are wanted and needed.

12. Popular children may be cooperative and easy to get along with or may be competitive and aggressive. Much depends on the age and culture of the children.

13. Rejected children may be neglected, aggressive, or withdrawn. Aggressive and withdrawn children have difficulty with social cognition; their interpretation of the normal give-and-take of childhood is impaired.

14. Bullying of all sorts—physical, verbal, relational, and cyber—is common, with long-term consequences for both bullies and victims. Bullies themselves may be admired, which makes their behaviour more difficult to stop.

15. Overall, a multifaceted, long-term, whole-school approach, with parents, teachers, and bystanders working together, seems the best way to halt bullying. Careful evaluation is needed to discover if a particular strategy changes the school culture.

Children’s Moral Values

16. School-age children seek to differentiate right from wrong. Peer values, cultural standards, and family practices are all part of their personal morality.

17. Kohlberg described three levels of moral reasoning, each related to cognitive maturity. His theory has been criticized for focusing too much on abstractions.

18. When values conflict, children often choose loyalty to peers over adult standards of behaviour. When children discuss moral issues with other children, they develop more thoughtful answers to moral questions.