SUMMARY

1. Two emotions, contentment and distress, appear as soon as an infant is born. Smiles and laughter are evident in the early months. Anger emerges in reaction to restriction and frustration, between 4 and 8 months of age, and becomes stronger by age 1.

2. Reflexive fear is apparent in very young infants. Fear of something specific, including fear of strangers and of separation, is typically strong toward the end of the first year.

3. In the second year, social awareness produces more selective fear, anger, and joy. As infants become increasingly self-aware, emotions emerge that encourage an interface between the self and others—specifically, pride, shame, and affection. Self-recognition (on the mirror/rouge test) emerges at about 18 months.

4. Stress impedes early brain and emotional development. Some infants are particularly vulnerable to the effects of early maltreatment.

5. Temperament is a set of genetic traits whose expression is influenced by the context. Inborn temperament is linked to later personality, although plasticity is also evident.

6. Often by 2 months, and clearly by 6 months, infants become more responsive and social. Synchrony is evident. Infants are disturbed by a still face because they expect and need social interaction.

7. Attachment, measured by the baby’s reaction to the caregiver’s presence, departure, and return in the Strange Situation, is crucial. Some infants seem indifferent (type A attachment—insecure-avoidant) or overly dependent (type C—insecure-resistant/-ambivalent) instead of secure (type B). Disorganized attachment (type D) is the most worrisome. Secure attachment provides encouragement for infant exploration.

8. As they play, toddlers engage in social referencing, looking to other people’s facial expressions and body language to detect what is safe, frightening, or fun.

9. Infants frequently use fathers as partners in synchrony, as attachment figures, and as social references, developing emotions and exploring their world via father caregiving.

10. Father-care is becoming more common, and it can be as nurturant as mother-care. Generally, father-play is more exciting than mother-play, which is more soothing. Parents vary in their roles; a well-informed functioning parental alliance is more important than who does what.

10. According to all major theories, caregiver behavior is especially influential in the first two years. Freud stressed the mother’s impact on oral and anal pleasure; Erikson emphasized trust and autonomy. The impact of these is lifelong.

11. Behaviorists focus on learning; parents teach their babies many things, including when to be fearful or joyful. Reinforcement and repetition are crucial, according to behaviorists. Social learning begins in infancy.

12. Cognitive theory holds that infants develop working models based on their experiences. A person’s ideas about life, originating in infancy, can change with later experiences.

1. The impact of nonmaternal care depends on many factors; it varies from one nation, one family, and even one child to another. Although center care advances cognition, concerns have been raised in the United States that it may increase the rate of externalizing problems.

2. Nations vary in funding for maternal leave, and for early education, and that affects infants when they enter day care and the quality of that care. In some nations, such as Norway, most 1-year-olds are in public center care; in other nations, no infant is.

3. Although each theory has a somewhat different emphasis, all agree that quality of care (responsive, individualized) is crucial, particularly in infancy, no matter who provides that care.