Evaluating ethical, logical, and emotional appeals as a reader

Ancient Greek rhetoricians distinguished among three kinds of appeals used to influence readers—ethical, logical, emotional. As you evaluate arguments, identify these appeals and question their effectiveness. Are they appropriate for the audience and the argument? Are they balanced and legitimate or lopsided and misleading?

Ethical appeals (ethos)

Ethical arguments call upon a writer's character, knowledge, and authority. Ask questions such as the following when you evaluate the ethical appeal of an argument.

  • Is the writer informed and trustworthy? How does the writer establish authority and credibility?
  • Is the writer fair-minded and unbiased? How does the writer establish reasonableness and good judgment?
  • Does the writer use sources knowledgeably and responsibly?
  • How does the writer describe the views of others and deal with opposing views?

Logical appeals (logos)

Reasonable arguments appeal to readers' sense of logic, rely on evidence, and use inductive and deductive reasoning. Ask questions such as the following to evaluate the logical appeal of an argument.

  • Is the evidence sufficient, representative, and relevant?
  • Is the reasoning sound?
  • Does the argument contain any logical fallacies or unwarranted assumptions?
  • Are there any missing or mistaken premises?

Emotional appeals (pathos)

Emotional arguments appeal to readers' beliefs and values. Ask questions such as the following to evaluate the emotional appeal of an argument.

  • What values or beliefs does the writer address, either directly or indirectly?
  • Are the emotional appeals legitimate and fair?
  • Does the writer oversimplify or dramatize an issue?
  • Do the emotional arguments highlight or shift attention away from the evidence?