Glossary

Glossary

ad hominem Latin for “to the man,” this fallacy refers to the specific diversionary tactic of switching the argument from the issue at hand to the character of the other speaker. If you argue that a park in your community should not be renovated because the person supporting it was arrested during a domestic dispute, then you are guilty of using an ad hominem fallacy.

ad populum (bandwagon appeal) Latin for “to the people,” this fallacy occurs when evidence used to defend an argument boils down to “everybody’s doing it, so it must be a good thing to do.”

You should vote to elect Rachel Johnson—she has a strong lead in the polls.

Polling higher does not necessarily make Senator Johnson the “best” candidate; it only makes her the most popular.

allegory A literary work that portrays abstract ideas concretely. Characters in an allegory are frequently personifications of abstract ideas and are given names that refer to these ideas. See Washington Irving, “Rip Van Winkle,” p. 435.

alliteration Repetition of the same consonant sound at the beginning of several words or syllables in sequence.

Let us go forth to lead the land we love. —John F. Kennedy

allusion Brief reference to a person, an event, or a place (real or fictitious) or to a work of art.

Let both sides unite to heed in all corners of the earth the command of Isaiah.

—John F. Kennedy

analogy A comparison between two seemingly dissimilar things. Often, an analogy uses something simple or familiar to explain something complex or unfamiliar.

My boy, you’ve got to know the shape of the river perfectly. It is all there is left to steer by on a very dark night. Every thing else is blotted out and gone. But mind you, it hasn’t the same shape in the night that it has in the daytime.”

How on earth am I ever going to learn it, then?

How do you follow a hall at home in the dark? Because you know the shape of it. You can’t see it.” —Mark Twain

anaphora Repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of successive phrases, clauses, or lines.

…not as a call to bear arms, though arms we need—not as a call to battle, though embattled we are—John F. Kennedy

anecdote A brief story used to illustrate a point or claim.

annotation The taking of notes directly on a text. See p. 52.

antimetabole Repetition of words in reverse order.

Ask not what your country can do for you—ask what you can do for your country.

—John F. Kennedy

antithesis Opposition, or contrast, of ideas or words in a parallel construction.

We shall…support any friend, oppose any foe—John F. Kennedy

apostrophe A direct address to an abstraction (such as Time), a thing (the Wind), an animal, or an imaginary or absent person.

Make me, O Lord, thy Spining Wheele complete. —Edward Taylor

appeal to false authority This fallacy occurs when someone who has no credibility to speak on an issue is cited as an authority. A TV star, for instance, is not a medical expert, though pharmaceutical advertisements often use such celebrities to endorse products.

According to former congressional leader Ari Miller, the Himalayas have an estimated Yeti population of between 300 and 500 individuals.

archaic diction Old-fashioned or outdated choice of words.

…beliefs for which our forebears fought—John F. Kennedy

argument A process of reasoned inquiry. A persuasive discourse resulting in a coherent and considered movement from a claim to a conclusion.

Aristotelian triangle See rhetorical triangle.

assertion A statement that presents a claim or thesis.

assonance The repetition of vowel sounds in a sequence of words.

That church so lone, the log-built one,

That echoed to many a parting groan

And natural prayer

Of dying foemen mingled there. —Herman Melville

assumption See warrant.

asyndeton Omission of conjunctions between coordinate phrases, clauses, or words.

We shall pay any price, bear any burden, meet any hardship, support any friend, oppose any foe to assure the survival and the success of liberty. —John F. Kennedy

audience The listener, viewer, or reader of a text. Most texts are likely to have multiple audiences.

Gehrig’s audience was his teammates and the fans in the stadium that day, but it was also the teams he played against, the fans listening on the radio, and posterity—us.

backing In the Toulmin model, backing consists of further assurances or data without which the assumption lacks authority. For an example, see Toulmin model.

bandwagon appeal See ad populum (bandwagon appeal).

begging the question A fallacy in which a claim is based on evidence or support that is in doubt. It “begs” a question whether the support itself is sound.

Giving students easy access to a wealth of facts and resources online allows them to develop critical thinking skills.

bias A prejudice or preconceived notion that prevents a person from approaching a topic in a neutral or an objective way. While you can be biased toward something, the most common usage has a negative connotation.

blank verse Unrhymed iambic pentameter. See also iambic pentameter. See Robert Frost, “Mending Wall,” p. 1080.

caesura A pause within a line of poetry, sometimes punctuated, sometimes not, that often mirrors natural speech.

The apparition of these faces in the crowd;

Petals on a wet, black bough. —Ezra Pound

characterization The method by which the author builds, or reveals, a character; it can be direct or indirect. Indirect characterization means that an author shows rather than tells us what a character is like through what the character says, does, or thinks or through what others say about the character. Direct characterization occurs when a narrator tells the reader who a character is by describing the background, motivation, temperament, or appearance of a character.

circular reasoning A fallacy in which the argument repeats the claim as a way to provide evidence.

You can’t give me a C; I’m an A student!

claim Also called an assertion or proposition, a claim states the argument’s main idea or position. A claim differs from a topic or subject in that a claim has to be arguable.

claim of fact A claim of fact asserts that something is true or not true.

The number of suicides and homicides committed by teenagers, most often young men, has exploded in the last three decades. —Anna Quindlen

claim of policy A claim of policy proposes a change.

Yet one solution continues to elude us, and that is ending the ignorance about mental health, and moving it from the margins of care and into the mainstream where it belongs. —Anna Quindlen

claim of value A claim of value argues that something is good or bad, right or wrong.

There’s a plague on all our houses, and since it doesn’t announce itself with lumps or spots or protest marches, it has gone unremarked in the quiet suburbs and busy cities where it has been laying waste. —Anna Quindlen

classical oration Five-part argument structure used by classical rhetoricians. The five parts of a classical oration are

introduction (exordium) Introduces the reader to the subject under discussion.

narration (narratio) Provides factual information and background material on the subject at hand or establishes why the subject is a problem that needs addressing.

confirmation (confirmatio) Usually the major part of the text, the confirmation includes the proof needed to make the writer’s case.

refutation (refutatio) Addresses the counterargument. It is a bridge between the writer’s proof and conclusion.

conclusion (peroratio) Brings the essay to a satisfying close.

See Sandra Day O’Connor and Roy Romer, “Not by Math Alone,” p. 117.

closed thesis A closed thesis is a statement of the main idea of the argument that also previews the major points the writer intends to make.

The three-dimensional characters, exciting plot, and complex themes of the Harry Potter series make them not only legendary children’s books but enduring literary classics.

complex sentence A sentence that includes one independent clause and at least one dependent clause.

If a free society cannot help the many who are poor, it cannot save the few who are rich.

—John F. Kennedy

compound sentence A sentence that includes at least two independent clauses.

The energy, the faith, the devotion which we bring to this endeavor will light our country and all who serve it—and the glow from that fire can truly light the world.

—John F. Kennedy

concession An acknowledgment that an opposing argument may be true or reasonable. In a strong argument, a concession is usually accompanied by a refutation challenging the validity of the opposing argument.

Lou Gehrig concedes what some of his listeners may think—that his bad break is a cause for discouragement or despair.

connotation Meanings or associations that readers have with a word beyond its dictionary definition, or denotation. Connotations are often positive or negative, and they often greatly affect the author’s tone. Consider the connotations of the words below, all of which mean “overweight.”

That cat is plump. That cat is fat. That cat is obese.

context The circumstances, atmosphere, attitudes, and events surrounding a text.

The context for Lou Gehrig’s speech is the recent announcement of his illness and his subsequent retirement, but also the poignant contrast between his potent career and his debilitating disease.

counterargument An opposing argument to the one a writer is putting forward. Rather than ignoring a counterargument, a strong writer will usually address it through the process of concession and refutation.

Some of Lou Gehrig’s listeners might have argued that his bad break was a cause for discouragement or despair.

counterargument thesis A type of thesis statement that includes a brief counterargument, usually qualified with although or but.

Although the Harry Potter series may have some literary merit, its popularity has less to do with storytelling than with merchandising.

cumulative sentence A sentence that completes the main idea at the beginning of the sentence and then builds and adds on.

But neither can two great and powerful groups of nations take comfort from our present course—both sides overburdened by the cost of modern weapons, both rightly alarmed by the steady spread of the deadly atom, yet both racing to alter that uncertain balance of terror that stays the hand of mankind’s final war. —John F. Kennedy

deduction Deduction is a logical process wherein you reach a conclusion by starting with a general principle or universal truth (a major premise) and applying it to a specific case (a minor premise). The process of deduction is usually demonstrated in the form of a syllogism:

MAJOR PREMISE Exercise contributes to better health.
MINOR PREMISE Yoga is a type of exercise.
CONCLUSION Yoga contributes to better health.

diction A speaker’s choice of words. Analysis of diction looks at these choices and what they add to the speaker’s message.

either/or (false dilemma) In this fallacy, the speaker presents two extreme options as the only possible choices.

Either we agree to higher taxes, or our grandchildren will be mired in debt.

ekphrasis Ekphrastic art or writing comments on another genre—for instance, a work of art that comments on a piece of music, or a poem that comments on a painting. See Stuart Davis, Swing Landscape, p. 1198, or Jayne Cortez, Jazz Fan Looks Back, p. 1207.

end rhyme See rhyme.

enjambment A poetic technique in which one line ends without a pause and continues to the next line to complete its meaning; also referred to as a “run-on line.”

Icicles filled the long window

With barbaric glass. —Wallace Stevens

enthymeme Essentially, a syllogism with one of the premises implied and taken for granted as true.

You should take her class because I learned so much from her last year.

(Implied premise: If you take her class, you will learn a lot too.)

epigram A short, witty statement designed to surprise an audience or a reader.

To be great is to be misunderstood. —Ralph Waldo Emerson

epigraph A quotation preceding a work of literature that helps set the text’s mood or suggests its themes.

Mistah Kurtz—he dead.

A penny for the Old Guy —T. S. Eliot

equivocation A fallacy that uses a term with two or more meanings in an attempt to misrepresent or deceive.

We will bring our enemies to justice, or we will bring justice to them.

ethos Greek for “character.” Speakers appeal to ethos to demonstrate that they are credible and trustworthy to speak on a given topic. Ethos is established by both who you are and what you say.

Lou Gehrig brings the ethos of being a legendary athlete to his speech, yet in it he establishes a different kind of ethos—that of a regular guy and a good sport who shares the audience’s love of baseball and family. And like them, he has known good luck and bad breaks.

eulogy A poem, a speech, or another work written in great praise of something or someone, usually a person no longer living. See Frederick Douglass, “Reminiscences of Abraham Lincoln by Distinguished Men of His Time,” p. 699, or Walt Whitman, “O Captain! My Captain!,” p. 659.

eye rhyme See rhyme.

fallacy See logical fallacies.

false dilemma See either/or.

faulty analogy A fallacy that occurs when an analogy compares not comparable. For instance, to argue that we should legalize human euthanasia, since we all agree that it is humane to put terminally ill animals to sleep, ignores significant emotional and ethical differences between the ways we view humans and animals.

figurative language (figure of speech) Nonliteral language, often evoking strong imagery, sometimes referred to as a trope. Figures of speech often compare one thing to another either explicitly (using simile) or implicitly (using metaphor). Other forms of figurative language include personification, paradox, overstatement (hyperbole), understatement, metonymy, synecdoche, and irony.

first-hand evidence Evidence based on something the writer knows, whether from personal experience, observation, or general knowledge of events.

form Refers to the defining structural characteristics of a work, especially a poem (i.e., meter and rhyme scheme). Often poets work within set forms, such as the sonnet, which require adherence to fixed conventions.

hasty generalization A fallacy in which a faulty conclusion is reached because of inadequate evidence.

Smoking isn’t bad for you; my great aunt smoked a pack a day and lived to be ninety.

hortative sentence Sentence that exhorts, urges, entreats, implores, or calls to action.

Let both sides explore what problems unite us instead of belaboring those problems which divide us. —John F. Kennedy

hyperbole Deliberate exaggeration used for emphasis or to produce a comic or an ironic effect; an overstatement to make a point.

…I am the only Negro in the United States whose grandfather on the mother’s side was not an Indian chief. —Zora Neale Hurston

iambic pentameter An iamb, the most common metrical foot in English poetry, is made up of an unstressed syllable followed by a stressed one. Iambic pentameter, then, is a rhythmic meter containing five iambs. Unrhymed iambic pentameter is called blank verse. See also meter; blank verse.

image

imagery A description of how something looks, feels, tastes, smells, or sounds. Imagery may use literal or figurative language to appeal to the senses.

None of them knew the color of the sky. Their eyes glanced level, and were fastened upon the waves that swept toward them. These waves were of the hue of slate, save for the tops, which were of foaming white, and all of the men knew the colors of the sea.

—Stephen Crane

imperative sentence Sentence used to command or enjoin.

My fellow citizens of the world: ask not what America will do for you, but what together we can do for the freedom of man. —John F. Kennedy

induction From the Latin inducere, “to lead into,” induction is a logical process wherein you reason from particulars to universals, using specific cases in order to draw a conclusion, which is also called a generalization.

  Regular exercise promotes weight loss.
  Exercise lowers stress levels.
  Exercise improves mood and outlook.
GENERALIZATION Exercise contributes to better health.

internal rhyme See rhyme.

inversion Inverted order of words in a sentence (deviation from the standard subject-verb-object order).

United there is little we cannot do in a host of cooperative ventures. Divided there is little we can do. —John F. Kennedy

irony, dramatic Tension created by the contrast between what a character says or thinks and what the audience or readers know to be true; as a result of this technique, some words and actions in a story or play take on a different meaning for the reader than they do for the characters. See Ambrose Bierce, “An Occurrence at Owl Creek Bridge,” p. 875.

irony, situational A discrepancy between what is expected and what actually happens. See Jourdon Anderson, “To My Old Master,” p. 829.

irony, verbal A figure of speech that occurs when a speaker or character says one thing but means something else or when what is said is the opposite of what is expected, creating a noticeable incongruity. Sarcasm involves verbal irony used derisively.

Without a woman to rule him and think for him, [man] is a truly lamentable spectacle: a baby with whiskers, a rabbit with the frame of an aurochs, a feeble and preposterous caricature of God. —H. L. Mencken

juxtaposition Placement of two things closely together to emphasize similarities or differences.

The nations of Asia and Africa are moving at jet-like speed toward gaining political independence, but we still creep at horse-and-buggy pace toward gaining a cup of coffee at a lunch counter. —Martin Luther King Jr.

logical fallacies Logical fallacies are potential vulnerabilities or weaknesses in an argument. They often arise from a failure to make a logical connection between the claim and the evidence used to support it.

logos Greek for “embodied thought.” Speakers appeal to logos, or reason, by offering clear, rational ideas and using specific details, examples, facts, statistics, or expert testimony to back them up.

Gehrig starts with the thesis that he is “the luckiest man on the face of the earth” and supports it with two points: (1) the love and kindness he’s received in his seventeen years of playing baseball and (2) a list of great people who have been his friends, family, and teammates.

metaphor Figure of speech that compares two things without using like or as.

And if a beachhead of cooperation may push back the jungle of suspicion

—John F. Kennedy

meter The formal, regular organization of stressed and unstressed syllables, measured in feet. A foot is distinguished by the number of syllables it contains and how stress is placed on the syllables—stressed (´) or unstressed (˘). There are five typical feet in English verse: iamb (˘ ´), trochee (´ ˘), anapest (˘ ˘ ´), dactyl (´ ˘ ˘), and spondee (´ ´). Some meters dictate the number of feet per line, the most common being tetrameter, pentameter, and hexameter, having four, five, and six feet, respectively.

metonymy Figure of speech in which something is represented by another thing that is related to it or emblematic of it.

The pen is mightier than the sword.

modernism In literature, modernism refers to a movement of writers that reached its apex between the 1920s and 1930s and expressed disillusionment with contemporary Western civilization, especially in the wake of World War I’s mindless slaughter. Rejecting the conventions of the Victorian era, these writers experimented with form and used insights from recent writings by Freud and Jung about the unconscious. They viewed art as restorative and frequently ordered their writing around symbols and allusions. Some American modernist writers include T. S. Eliot (p. 1113), Wallace Stevens (p. 1084), William Carlos Williams (p. 1106), and William Faulkner (p. 1155).

modifier An adjective, an adverb, a phrase, or a clause that modifies a noun, pronoun, or verb. The purpose of a modifier is usually to describe, focus, or qualify.

…high above the forest wall a clean-stemmed dead tree waved a single leafy bough that glowed like a flame in the unobstructed splendor that was flowing from the sun. —Mark Twain

mood The feeling or atmosphere created by a text.

narrative frame Also known as a frame story, a narrative frame is a plot device in which the author places the main narrative of his or her work within another narrative—the narrative frame. This exterior narrative usually serves to explain the main narrative in some way. See Washington Irving, “Rip Van Winkle,” p. 435.

near rhyme See rhyme.

nominalization The process of changing a verb into a noun.

Discuss becomes discussion. Depend becomes dependence.

occasion The time and place a speech is given or a piece is written.

In the case of Gehrig’s speech, the occasion is Lou Gehrig Appreciation Day. More specifically, his moment came at home plate between games of a doubleheader.

onomatopoeia Use of words that refer to sounds and whose pronunciations mimic those sounds.

That echoed to many a parting groan

And all is hushed at Shiloh. —Herman Melville

open thesis An open thesis is one that does not list all the points the writer intends to cover in the essay.

The popularity of the Harry Potter series demonstrates that simplicity trumps complexity when it comes to the taste of readers, both young and old.

oxymoron A paradox made up of two seemingly contradictory words.

But this peaceful revolution—John F. Kennedy

paradox A statement or situation that is seemingly contradictory on the surface but delivers an ironic truth.

A smart Indian is a dangerous person. —Sherman Alexie

We are starved before we are hungry. —Henry David Thoreau

parallelism Similarity of structure in a pair or series of related words, phrases, or clauses.

Let both sides explore… . Let both sides, for the first time, formulate serious and precise proposals… . Let both sides seek to invoke… . Let both sides unite to heed—John F. Kennedy

passive voice A sentence employs passive voice when the subject doesn’t act but rather is acted on.

I know not whether an Account is given of the means I used to establish the Philadelphia publick Library. —Benjamin Franklin

pathos Greek for “suffering” or “experience.” Speakers appeal to pathos to emotionally motivate their audience. More specific appeals to pathos might play on the audience’s values, desires, and hopes, on the one hand, or fears and prejudices, on the other.

The most striking appeal to pathos is the poignant contrast between Gehrig’s horrible diagnosis and his public display of courage.

periodic sentence A sentence whose main clause is withheld until the end.

To that world assembly of sovereign states, the United Nations, our last best hope in an age where the instruments of war have far outpaced the instruments of peace, we renew our pledge of support. —John F. Kennedy

persona Greek for “mask.” The face or character that a speaker shows to his or her audience.

Lou Gehrig is a famous baseball hero, but in his speech he presents himself as a common man who is modest and thankful for the opportunities he’shad.

personification Attribution of a lifelike quality to an inanimate object or an idea.

…with history the final judge of our deeds—John F. Kennedy

poetic syntax Similar to syntax in prose, poetic syntax also includes the arrangement of words into lines of poetry—where they break and do not break, the use of enjambment or caesura, and line lengths and patterns.

polemic Greek for “hostile.” An aggressive argument that tries to establish the superiority of one opinion over all others, a polemic generally does not concede that opposing opinions have any merit.

polysyndeton The deliberate use of multiple conjunctions between coordinate phrases, clauses, or words.

I paid for my plane ticket and the taxes and the fees and the charge for the checked bag and five dollars for a bottle of water.

point of view The perspective from which a work is told. The most common narrative vantage points are

first person Told by a narrator who is a character in the story and who refers to him- or herself as “I.” First-person narrators are sometimes unreliable narrators because they don’t always see the big picture or because they might be biased.

second person Though rare, some stories are told using second-person pronouns (you). This casts the reader as a character in the story.

third-person limited omniscient Told by a narrator who relates the action using third-person pronouns (he, she, it). This narrator is usually privy to the thoughts and actions of only one character.

third-person omniscient Told by a narrator using third-person pronouns. This narrator is privy to the thoughts and actions of all the characters in the story.

post hoc ergo propter hoc This fallacy is Latin for “after which therefore because of which,” meaning that it is incorrect to always claim that something is a cause just because it happened earlier. One may loosely summarize this fallacy by saying that correlation does not imply causation.

We elected Johnson as president and look where it got us: hurricanes, floods, stock market crashes.

propaganda The spread of ideas and information to further a cause. In its negative sense, propaganda is the use of rumors, lies, disinformation, and scare tactics in order to damage or promote a cause.

pun A play on words that derives its humor from the replacement of one word with another that has a similar pronunciation or spelling but a different meaning. A pun can also derive humor from the use of a single word that has more than one meaning.

Offhand, I can think of two Jacks—there was Jack of “Jack and the Beanstalk,” and Jack the Ripper, who cut quite a figure in his day. —Groucho Marx

purpose The goal the speaker wants to achieve.

One of Gehrig’s chief purposes in delivering his farewell address is to thank his fans and his teammates, but he also wants to demonstrate that he remains positive: he emphasizes his past luck and present optimism and downplays his illness.

qualified argument An argument that is not absolute. It acknowledges the merits of an opposing view but develops a stronger case for its own position.

qualifier Qualifiers are words like usually, probably, maybe, in most cases, and most likely that are used to temper claims a bit, making them less absolute.

UNQUALIFIED Dogs are more obedient than cats.
QUALIFIED Dogs are generally more obedient than cats.

qualitative evidence Evidence supported by reason, tradition, or precedent.

quantitative evidence Quantitative evidence includes things that can be measured, cited, counted, or otherwise represented in numbers—for instance, statistics, surveys, polls, and census information.

rebuttal In the Toulmin model, a rebuttal gives voice to possible objections. For an example, see Toulmin model.

red herring A type of logical fallacy wherein the speaker relies on distraction to derail an argument, usually by skipping to a new or an irrelevant topic. The term derives from the dried fish that trainers used to distract dogs when teaching them to hunt foxes.

We can debate these regulations until the cows come home, but what the American people want to know is, when are we going to end this partisan bickering?

reservation In the Toulmin model, a reservation explains the terms and conditions necessitated by the qualifier. For an example, see Toulmin model.

rhetoric Aristotle defined rhetoric as “the faculty of observing in any given case the available means of persuasion.” In other words, it is the art of finding ways of persuading an audience.

rhetorical appeals Rhetorical techniques used to persuade an audience by emphasizing what they find most important or compelling. The three major appeals are to ethos (character), logos (reason), and pathos (emotion).

rhetorical question Figure of speech in the form of a question posed for rhetorical effect rather than for the purpose of getting an answer.

Will you join in that historic effort? —John F. Kennedy

rhetorical triangle (Aristotelian triangle) A diagram that illustrates the interrelationship among the speaker, audience, and subject in determining a text. See p. 3.

rhyme The poetic repetition of the same (or similar) vowel sounds or of vowel and consonant combinations. A rhyme at the end of two or more lines of poetry is called an end rhyme. A rhyme that occurs within a line is called an internal rhyme. A rhyme that pairs sounds that are similar but not exactly the same is called a near rhyme or a slant rhyme. A rhyme that only works because the words look the same is called an eye rhyme or a sight rhyme. Rhyme often follows a pattern, called a rhyme scheme.

end rhyme

Thou ill-formed offspring of my feeble brain,

Who after birth didst by my side remain, —Anne Bradstreet

internal rhyme

And crown thy good with brotherhood

From sea to shining sea! —Katharine Lee Bates

near rhyme or slant rhyme

Let poets and historians set these forth,

My obscure lines shall not so dim their worth. —Anne Bradstreet

eye rhyme

Unmoved—she notes the Chariots—pausing

At her low Gate

Unmoved—an Emperor be kneeling

Upon her Matemily dickinson

Rogerian arguments Developed by psychiatrist Carl Rogers, Rogerian arguments are based on the assumption that fully understanding an opposing position is essential to responding to it persuasively and refuting it in a way that is accommodating rather than alienating.

satire The use of irony or sarcasm as a means of critique, usually of a society or an individual.

scheme Artful syntax; a deviation from the normal order of words. Common schemes include parallelism, juxtaposition, antithesis, and antimetabole.

second-hand evidence Evidence that is accessed through research, reading, and investigation. It includes factual and historical information, expert opinion, and quantitative data.

simile A figure of speech used to explain or clarify an idea by comparing it explicitly to something else, using the words like, as, or as though.

The linear, two-dimensional action of soccer is like the rocking of a boat but without any storm and while the boat has not even left the dock. —Stephen H. Webb

slant rhyme See rhyme.

slippery slope A logical fallacy created by a cause having an illogically exaggerated effect or series of effects.

No, we can't get a dog. If we buy a dog, I'll have to walk it outside, and then I'll get bitten by a tick and wind up with Lyme disease.

SOAPS A mnemonic device that stands for Subject, Occasion, Audience, Purpose, and Speaker. It is a handy way to remember the various elements that make up the rhetorical situation.

sonnet, Petrarchan Also known as the Italian sonnet, its fourteen lines are divided into an octave and a sestet. The octave rhymes abba, abba; the sestet that follows can have a variety of different rhyme schemes: cdcdcd, cdecde, cddcdd. See Paul Laurence Dunbar, “Douglass,” p. 897.

sonnet, Shakespearean Also known as the English sonnet, its fourteen lines are composed of three quatrains and a couplet, and its rhyme scheme is abab, cdcd, efef, gg. See Robert Hayden, “Frederick Douglass,” p. 898.

sound The musical quality of poetry, as created through techniques such as rhyme, enjambment, caesura, alliteration, assonance, onomatopoeia, and rhythm.

speaker The person or group who creates a text. This might be a politician who delivers a speech, a commentator who writes an article, an artist who draws a political cartoon, or even a company that commissions an advertisement.

In his farewell address, the speaker is not just Lou Gehrig, but baseball hero and ALS victim Lou Gehrig, a common man who is modest and thankful for the opportunities he’s had.

stance A speaker’s attitude toward the audience (different from tone, which is the speaker’s attitude toward the subject).

straw man A fallacy that occurs when a speaker chooses a deliberately poor or oversimplified example in order to ridicule and refute an idea.

Politician X proposes that we put astronauts on Mars in the next four years. Politician Y ridicules this proposal by saying that his opponent is looking for “little green men in outer space.”

subject The topic of a text. What the text is about.

Lou Gehrig’s subject in his speech is his illness, but it is also an expression of his gratitude for all the lucky breaks that preceded his diagnosis.

syllogism A logical structure that uses the major premise and minor premise to reach a necessary conclusion.

MAJOR PREMISE Exercise contributes to better health.
MINOR PREMISE Yoga is a type of exercise.
CONCLUSION Yoga contributes to better health.

symbol A setting, an object, or an event in a story that carries more than literal meaning and therefore represents something significant to understanding the meaning of a work of literature.

In “The Chrysanthemums,” the flowers represent the beauty and grace the main character longs for but that elude her.

synecdoche Figure of speech that uses a part to represent the whole.

In your hands, my fellow citizens, more than mine, will rest the final success or failure of our course. —John F. Kennedy

syntax The arrangement of words into phrases, clauses, and sentences. This includes word order (subject-verb-object, for instance, or an inverted structure); the length and structure of sentences (simple, compound, complex, or compound-complex); and such schemes as parallelism, juxtaposition, antithesis, and antimetabole.

synthesis Combining two or more ideas in order to create something more complex in support of a new idea.

text While this term generally refers to the written word, in the humanities it has come to mean any cultural product that can be “read”—meaning not just consumed and comprehended but also investigated. This includes fiction, nonfiction, poetry, political cartoons, fine art, photography, performances, fashion, cultural trends, and much more.

tone A speaker’s attitude toward the subject as conveyed by the speaker’s stylistic and rhetorical choices.

Toulmin model An approach to analyzing and constructing arguments created by British philosopher Stephen Toulmin in his book The Uses of Argument (1958). The Toulmin model can be stated as a template:

Because (evidence as support), therefore (claim), since (warrant or assumption), on account of (backing), unless (reservation).

Because it is raining, therefore I should probably take my umbrella, since it will keep me dry, on account of its waterproof material, unless, of course, there is a hole in it.

trope Artful diction; from the Greek word for “turning,” a figure of speech such as metaphor, simile, hyperbole, metonymy, or synecdoche.

understatement A figure of speech in which something is presented as less important, dire, urgent, good, and so on than it actually is, often for satiric or comical effect. Also called litotes, it is the opposite of hyperbole.

The night in prison was novel and interesting enough. —Henry David Thoreau

warrant In the Toulmin model, the warrant expresses the assumption necessarily shared by the speaker and the audience.

wit In rhetoric, the use of laughter, humor, irony, and satire in the confirmation or refutation of an argument.

zeugma Use of two different words in a grammatically similar way that produces different, often incongruous, meanings.

Now the trumpet summons us again—not as a call to bear arms, though arms we need—not as a call to battle, though embattled we are—but a call to bear the burden.

—John F. Kennedy

And Benjamin tries to shove me into a barbed wire paddock and make me grow potatoes or Chicagoes. —D. H. Lawrence