Chapter 104. Moral Reasoning

Learning Objectives

conventional morality
according to Kohlberg, the second level of moral reasoning, focused on lawful behavior that maintains the social order; typical of teens and most adults
moral intuition
a type of "gut-level" thinking involving quick emotional reactions to the morality of behaviors
moral reasoning
a type of thinking that occurs when people evaluate a decision or a behavior as either right or wrong
preconventional morality
according to Kohlberg, the lowest, or first, level of moral reasoning, focused on gaining rewards and avoiding punishment; common in children
postconventional morality
according to Kohlberg, the highest level of moral reasoning, focused on self-chosen values or universal ethical principles; rare, but found in some older teens and adults
Moral Reasoning
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Learning Objectives:

Describe Kohlberg’s theory of the development of moral reasoning.

Identify examples of moral reasoning from each level of Kohlberg’s theory.

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1. Psychologist Jean Piaget conducted some of the earliest research on the development of moral reasoning. Piaget observed that young children have a rigid objective morality based on rules and inescapable consequences for breaking the rules. Older children have a more flexible subjective morality that is sensitive to situations, and places more emphasis on the intentions of the person.

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2. Building on Piaget’s ideas, psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg proposed that moral reasoning develops through three levels, each loosely associated with the age of the person. Most children make moral judgments at a self-centered level Kohlberg called preconventional morality. Behaviors are considered "right" if they bring the person concrete rewards, and "wrong" if they bring punishment.

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3. Kohlberg claimed that older children, and most adults, operate at the level of conventional morality. Here, the emphasis is on laws and social rules. Behaviors are right if friends and family would approve, or if the actions would be good for society. Behaviors are wrong if they break laws or result in social disapproval.

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4. Kohlberg thought that only a minority of adults reach the highest level of reasoning, which he called postconventional morality. At this level, behaviors are considered right if they flow from personal ethical principles (an individual’s "conscience") or conform to universal moral goals such as preserving human life.

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5. In Kohlberg’s view, as moral development progresses, a person’s focus moves from preconventional self-interest (an action is right if it is good for me) to the wider social world of conventional morality (an action is right if it is good for society). For some people, further development turns the focus back to the self—this time, in the form of postconventional self-chosen moral principles that may violate the standards of family and society (an action is right if my conscience compels me to do it, even if no one else agrees).

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6. Kohlberg’s theory has been criticized as biased against females, because postconventional morality pits individual abstract ethical principles (perhaps more appealing to males) against compassion and care for family and society (perhaps more appealing to females). Kohlberg’s theory is also thought to be biased against people from non-western societies, where individualism is less valued. In general, research has supported the existence of a cultural bias; the evidence for a gender bias is not as strong.

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7. Other critics of Kohlberg’s theory have pointed out the distinction between moral reasoning and moral behavior. Just because an older teen can make a decision at Kolhberg’s highest level of moral reasoning does not mean that the teen will actually follow through with the appropriate actions. For example, a college student may recognize that cheating on an exam is fundamentally unfair to other students and to the educational process—yet, that student may violate that moral principle when under extreme pressure to get a good grade.

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8. Recently, researchers such as Jonathan Haidt have argued that many decisions are actually based on moral intuition (fast, automatic, emotion-based judgments) rather than careful, deliberate moral reasoning. However, when the decision is important and enough time is available, an individual’s characteristic level of reasoning is a good predictor of the outcome.

Practice 1: Exploring Levels of Moral Reasoning

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Practice 1: Exploring Levels of Moral Reasoning

Roll over each level of Kohlberg’s theory to learn more about that level.

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Preconventional morality

Conventional morality

Postconventional morality

Description:

reasoning based on consequences for self; most children are in this level

reasoning based on social rules and expectations; most teens and adults are in this level

reasoning based on individual, self-chosen values and universal ethical principles; a few mature teens are in this level, along with a small minority of adults

Practice 2: Examples of Moral Reasoning

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Practice 2: Examples of Moral Reasoning

Roll over each statement to see where this type of reasoning would fall in Kohlberg’s theory.

If someone hurts me, it is morally right for me to get revenge by hurting that person.

An action is morally right if it would make my parents or friends proud of me.

It would be better for a soldier to go to prison rather than follow orders if those orders might result in innocent civilians being injured or killed.

It is wrong to plagiarize someone else’s words or ideas when writing a research paper, because you would fail the course if the professor caught you.

Even if I think that a law is stupid, the right thing to do is to obey the law.

If you know that a friend was the driver in a “hit-and-run” automobile accident, it would be morally right to report the incident to the police.

Explanation:

This type of reasoning illustrates preconventional morality based on self-interest, without regard for the well-being of others.

This type of reasoning illustrates conventional morality based on approval from the immediate social group.

This type of reasoning illustrates postconventional morality based on universal ethical principles.

This type of reasoning illustrates preconventional morality based on concrete rewards and punishments.

This type of reasoning illustrates conventional morality based on maintaining the social order.

This type of reasoning illustrates postconventional morality based on principles of conscience that overrule the desire to be kind to a friend.

Quiz 1

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Quiz 1

Match the terms for levels of Kohlberg’s theory to their descriptions by dragging each colored circle to the appropriate gray circle. When all the circles have been placed, select the CHECK ANSWER button.

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Perhaps you should go back to review the three levels of Kohlberg’s theory.
postconventional morality
preconventional morality
conventional morality
reasoning based on consequences for self; focused on gaining rewards and avoiding punishment
reasoning based on social rules and expectations; focused on lawful behavior that maintains the social order
reasoning based on conscience; focused on self-chosen values or universal ethical principles

Quiz 2

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Quiz 2

Drag each term to the corresponding example. When all the terms have been placed, select the CHECK ANSWER button.

Perhaps you should go back to review the levels of Kohlberg’s theory.
Select the NEXT button and move to the Conclusion.
Preconventional morality
Conventional morality
Postconventional morality

Kadar is willing to go to jail rather than to obey a law that discriminates against some people.

Keiko feels terrible about getting caught cheating on an exam because she knows that her parents will be very disappointed in her.

Kristoff has no guilt feelings about stealing cash from other students’ backpacks, because he thinks he needs the money more than they do.

Conclusion

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