|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Discovering the Night Sky |
|
|
|
|
1-1 The night sky is full of patterns |
|
1-2 Constellations make locating stars easy |
|
1-3 The celestial sphere aids in navigating the sky |
|
1-4 An “alt”ernative coordinate system |
|
1-5 Earth orbits the Sun in a plane called the ecliptic |
|
|
|
|
1-6 Earth’s rotation creates the day-night cycle and its revolution defines a year |
|
|
|
|
1-7 The seasons result from the tilt of Earth’s rotation axis combined with Earth’s revolution around the Sun |
|
1-8 Clocks and calendars are based on Earth’s rotation and revolution |
|
1-9 Precession is a slow, circular motion of Earth’s axis of rotation |
|
|
|
|
1-10 The phases of the Moon originally inspired the concept of the month |
|
|
|
|
1-11 Eclipses do not occur during every new or full Moon phase |
|
1-12 Three types of lunar eclipses occur |
|
1-13 Three types of solar eclipses also occur |
|
|
|
|
1-14 Astronomical distances are, well, astronomical |
|
|
|
|
|
|
Gravitation and the Motion of the Planets |
|
SCIENCE: KEY TO COMPREHENDING THE COSMOS |
|
2-1 Science is both a body of knowledge and a process of learning about nature |
|
CHANGING OUR EARTH-CENTERED VIEW OF THE UNIVERSE |
|
2-2 The belief in a Sun-centered cosmology formed slowly |
|
DISCOVERY 2-1 Earth-Centered Universe |
|
2-3 Copernicus devised the first comprehensive heliocentric cosmology |
|
2-4 Tycho Brahe made astronomical observations that disproved ancient ideas about the heavens |
|
KEPLER’S AND NEWTON’S LAWS |
|
2-5 Kepler’s laws describe orbital shapes, changing speeds, and the lengths of planetary years |
|
DISCOVERY 2-2 Units of Astronomical Distance |
|
2-6 Galileo’s discoveries strongly supported a heliocentric cosmology |
|
2-7 Newton formulated three laws that describe fundamental properties of physical reality |
|
2-8 Newton’s description of gravity accounts for Kepler’s laws |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
3-1 Newton discovered that white is not a fundamental color and proposed that light is composed of particles |
|
3-2 Light travels at a finite but incredibly fast speed |
|
3-3 Einstein showed that light sometimes behaves as particles that carry energy |
|
3-4 Visible light is only one type of electromagnetic radiation |
|
|
|
|
3-5 Reflecting telescopes use mirrors to concentrate incoming starlight |
|
3-6 Telescopes brighten, resolve, and magnify |
|
3-7 Eyepieces, refracting telescopes, and binoculars use lenses to focus incoming light |
|
3-8 Shaping telescope mirrors and lenses is an evolving science |
|
3-9 Storing and analyzing light from space is key to understanding the cosmos |
|
3-10 Earth’s atmosphere hinders astronomical research |
|
CAPTURING NONVISIBLE LIGHT: NONOPTICAL ASTRONOMY |
|
3-11 Specially designed telescopes gather electromagnetic energy in all of the nonvisible parts of the spectrum |
|
|
|
|
3-12 An object’s peak color shifts to shorter wavelengths as it is heated |
|
3-13 The relative intensities of different emitted colors reveal a star’s surface temperature |
|
IDENTIFYING THE ELEMENTS BY ANALYZING THEIR UNIQUE SPECTRA |
|
3-14 Each chemical element produces its own unique set of spectral lines |
|
3-15 The various brightness levels of spectral lines depend on conditions in the spectrum’s source |
|
|
|
|
3-16 An atom consists of a small, dense nucleus surrounded by electrons |
|
3-17 Spectra occur because electrons absorb and emit photons with only certain wavelengths |
|
3-18 Spectra provide information about motion of objects toward or away from us but not across the sky |
|
|
|
|
|
|
Formation of the Solar System |
|
THE SOLAR SYSTEM CONTAINS HEAVY ELEMENTS, FORMED FROM AN EARLIER GENERATION OF STARS |
|
4-1 Stars transform matter from lighter elements into heavier ones |
|
4-2 Gravity, rotation, collisions, and heat shaped the young solar system |
|
THE FORMATION OF THE PLANETS |
|
4-3 The giant planets formed in sequence |
|
4-4 The inner planets formed primarily from collisions |
|
DEBRIS: REMNANTS IN THE SOLAR SYSTEM |
|
4-5 The changing orbits of the giant planets spread debris throughout the solar system |
|
4-6 The asteroid belt is leftover debris |
|
4-7 The infalling debris from the giant planets led to the Late Heavy Bombardment |
|
CATEGORIES OF THE PRESENT-DAY SOLAR SYSTEM |
|
4-8 The categories of solar system objects have evolved |
|
4-9 The orbits of the planets are related |
|
4-10 The Sun developed while the planets matured |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
EXOPLANETS—PLANETS OUTSIDE OUR SOLAR SYSTEM |
|
5-1 Protoplanetary disks are a common part of the star-forming process |
|
5-2 Astronomers have at least seven different ways of detecting planets outside our solar system |
|
5-3 Exoplanets orbit a breathtaking variety of stars |
|
5-4 Exoplanets with a wide range of sizes, masses, and compositions have been observed |
|
5-5 Stars with multiple planets have been observed |
|
5-6 Many exoplanets have extraordinary orbits, as compared to those in our solar system |
|
5-7 Planets that are not orbiting stars have also been observed |
|
5-8 There are billions and billions of planets |
|
5-9 Planets with liquid water are being discovered |
|
5-10 The search for life on exoplanets is under way |
|
|
|
|
|
|
The Terrestrial Planets and Their Moons |
|
|
|
|
6-1 Comparisons of the eight planets show distinct similarities and significant differences |
|
EARTH: A DYNAMIC, VITAL WORLD |
|
6-2 Earth’s atmosphere has evolved over billions of years |
|
6-3 Plate tectonics produce major changes on Earth’s surface |
|
6-4 Earth’s interior consists of a rocky mantle and an iron-rich core |
|
6-5 Earth’s magnetic field shields us from the solar wind |
|
|
|
|
6-6 The Moon’s surface is covered with craters, plains, and mountains |
|
6-7 Visits to the Moon yielded invaluable information about its history |
|
6-8 The Moon probably formed from debris cast into space when a huge planetesimal struck the young Earth |
|
6-9 Tides have played several important roles in the history of Earth and the Moon |
|
6-10 The Moon is moving away from Earth |
|
|
|
|
6-11 Photographs from Mariner 10 and Messenger spacecraft reveal Mercury’s lunarlike surface |
|
6-12 Mercury has a higher percentage of iron than Earth |
|
6-13 Mercury’s rotation and revolution are coupled |
|
6-14 Mercury’s atmosphere is the thinnest of all terrestrial planets |
|
|
|
|
6-15 The surface of Venus is completely hidden beneath a permanent cloud cover |
|
6-16 The greenhouse effect heats Venus’s surface |
|
6-17 Venus is covered with gently rolling hills, two “continents,” and numerous volcanoes |
|
|
|
|
6-18 Mars’s global features include plains, canyons, craters, and volcanoes |
|
6-19 Although no canals exist on Mars, it does have some curious natural features |
|
6-20 Mars’s interior is less molten than the inside of Earth |
|
6-21 Martian air is thin and often filled with dust |
|
6-22 Surface and underground features indicate that water once flowed on Mars |
|
6-23 Search for microscopic life on Mars continues |
|
6-24 Mars’s two moons look more like potatoes than spheres |
|
COMPARATIVE PLANETOLOGY OF THE INNER PLANETS |
|
6-25 Comparisons of planetary features provide new insights |
|
|
|
|
|
|
The Outer Planets and Their Moons |
|
|
|
|
7-1 Jupiter’s outer layer is a dynamic area of storms and turbulent gases |
|
7-2 Jupiter’s interior has four distinct regions |
|
7-3 Impacts provide probes into Jupiter’s atmosphere |
|
JUPITER’S MOONS AND RINGS |
|
7-4 Io’s surface is sculpted by volcanic activity |
|
7-5 Europa harbors liquid water below its surface |
|
7-6 Ganymede is larger than Mercury |
|
7-7 Callisto bears the scars of a huge asteroid impact |
|
7-8 Other debris orbits Jupiter as smaller moons and ringlets |
|
|
|
|
7-9 Saturn’s atmosphere, surface, and interior are similar to Jupiter |
|
7-10 Saturn’s spectacular rings are composed of fragments of ice and ice-coated rock |
|
7-11 Titan has a thick atmosphere, clouds, and lakes filled with liquids |
|
|
|
|
7-13 Enceladus has water jets, an atmosphere, and a magnetic field |
|
|
|
|
7-14 Uranus sports a hazy atmosphere and clouds |
|
7-15 A system of rings and satellites revolves around Uranus |
|
|
|
|
7-16 Neptune was discovered because it had to be there |
|
7-17 Neptune has rings and captured moons |
|
COMPARATIVE PLANETOLOGY OF THE OUTER PLANETS |
|
|
|
|
|
|
Vagabonds of the Solar System |
|
|
|
|
8-1 Pluto and its moon, Charon, are about the same size |
|
8-2 Ceres is a dwarf planet in the asteroid belt, while Pluto, Eris, Haumea, and Makemake are trans-Neptunian objects as well as dwarf planets |
|
SMALL SOLAR SYSTEM BODIES |
|
|
|
|
8-3 Most asteroids orbit the Sun between Mars and Jupiter |
|
8-4 Jupiter’s gravity creates gaps in the asteroid belt |
|
8-5 Asteroids also orbit outside the asteroid belt |
|
|
|
|
8-6 Comets come from far out in the solar system |
|
8-7 Comet tails develop from gases and dust pushed outward by the Sun |
|
8-8 Comets are fragile yet durable |
|
8-9 Comets do not last forever |
|
METEOROIDS, METEORS, AND METEORITES |
|
8-10 Small, rocky debris peppers the solar system |
|
8-11 Meteorites are space debris that land intact |
|
8-12 The Allende meteorite provides evidence of catastrophic explosions |
|
8-13 Asteroid impacts with Earth have caused mass extinctions |
|
|
|
|
|
|
The Sun: Our Extraordinary Ordinary Star |
|
|
|
|
9-1 The photosphere is the visible layer of the Sun |
|
9-2 The chromosphere is characterized by spikes of gas called spicules |
|
9-3 The outermost layer of the Sun’s atmosphere, the corona, is exceptionally hot |
|
|
|
|
9-4 Sunspots reveal the solar cycle and the Sun’s rotation |
|
9-5 The Sun’s magnetic fields create sunspots |
|
9-6 Solar magnetic fields also create other atmospheric phenomena |
|
|
|
|
9-7 Thermonuclear reactions in the core of the Sun produce its energy |
|
9-8 The solar model describes how energy escapes from the Sun’s core |
|
DISCOVERY 9-1 Thermonuclear Fusion |
|
9-9 The Sun has gotten brighter over time |
|
9-10 The mystery of the missing neutrinos inspired research into the fundamental nature of matter |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
10-1 Distances to nearby stars are found using stellar parallax |
|
DISCOVERY 10-1 Distances to Nearby Stars |
|
|
|
|
10-2 Apparent magnitude measures the brightness of stars as seen from Earth |
|
10-3 Absolute magnitudes and luminosities do not depend on distance |
|
DISCOVERY 10-2 The Distance–Magnitude Relationship |
|
THE TEMPERATURES OF STARS |
|
10-4 A star’s color reveals its surface temperature |
|
10-5 A star’s spectrum also reveals its surface temperature |
|
10-6 Stars are classified by their spectra |
|
|
|
|
10-7 The Hertzsprung-Russell diagram identifies distinct groups of stars |
|
10-8 Luminosity classes set the stage for understanding stellar evolution |
|
10-9 A star’s spectral type and luminosity class provide a second distance-measuring technique |
|
DISCOVERY 10-3 Kepler’s Third Law and Stellar Masses |
|
|
|
|
10-10 Binary stars provide information about stellar masses |
|
10-11 Main-sequence stars have a relationship between mass and luminosity |
|
10-12 The orbital motion of binary stars affects the wavelengths of their spectral lines |
|
|
|
|
|
|
The Lives of Stars from Birth Through Middle Age |
|
PROTOSTARS AND PRE–MAIN-SEQUENCE STARS |
|
11-1 Gas and dust exist between the stars |
|
11-2 Supernovae, collisions of interstellar clouds, and starlight trigger new star formation |
|
11-3 When a protostar ceases to accumulate mass, it becomes a pre–main-sequence star |
|
11-4 The evolutionary track of a pre–main-sequence star depends on its mass |
|
11-5 H II regions harbor young star clusters |
|
11-6 Plotting a star cluster on an H-R diagram reveals its age |
|
MAIN-SEQUENCE AND GIANT STARS |
|
11-7 Stars spend most of their lives on the main sequence |
|
EVOLUTION OF LOW MASS (0.08–0.4 M⊙) STARS |
|
11-8 Red dwarfs convert essentially their entire mass into helium |
|
EARLY AND MIDDLE EVOLUTION OF INTERMEDIATE (0.4–8 M⊙) AND HIGH-MASS STARS |
|
11-9 When core hydrogen fusion slows down, a main-sequence star with mass greater than 0.4 M⊙ becomes a giant |
|
11-10 Helium fusion begins at the center of a giant |
|
11-11 Life in the giant phase has its ups and downs |
|
|
|
|
11-12 A Cepheid pulsates because it is alternately expanding and contracting |
|
11-13 Cepheids enable astronomers to estimate vast distances |
|
11-14 Globular clusters are bound groups of old stars |
|
11-15 Mass transfer in close binary systems can produce unusual double stars |
|
|
|
|
|
|
The Deaths and Remnants of Stars |
|
INTERMEDIATE-MASS (0.4 M⊙–8 M⊙) STARS AND PLANETARY NEBULAE |
|
12-1 Intermediate-mass stars become supergiants before expanding into planetary nebulae |
|
12-2 The burned-out core of an intermediate-mass star becomes a white dwarf |
|
HIGH-MASS STARS (GREATER THAN 8 M⊙) AND TYPE II SUPERNOVAE |
|
12-3 A series of fusion reactions in high-mass stars leads to luminous supergiants |
|
12-4 High-mass stars blow apart in Type II supernova explosions |
|
12-5 Supernova remnants are observed in many places |
|
NEUTRON STARS AND PULSARS |
|
12-6 The cores of many Type II supernovae become neutron stars |
|
12-7 A rotating magnetic field explains the pulses from a neutron star |
|
12-8 Neutron stars have internal structure |
|
12-9 Colliding neutron stars may provide some of the heavy elements in the universe |
|
12-10 Binary neutron stars create pulsating X-ray sources |
|
|
|
|
12-11 Einstein revolutionized our understanding of space, time, and gravity |
|
|
|
|
12-12 Matter in a black hole becomes much simpler than elsewhere in the universe |
|
12-13 Falling into a black hole is an infinite voyage |
|
|
|
|
12-14 Several binary star systems contain black holes |
|
12-15 Other black holes range in mass up to billions of solar masses |
|
12-16 Black holes and neutron stars in binary systems often create jets of gas |
|
|
|
|
12-17 Gamma-ray bursts are the most powerful explosions in the known universe |
|
12-18 Black holes evaporate |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
13-1 Studies of Cepheid variable stars revealed that the Milky Way is only one of many galaxies |
|
13-2 Cepheid variables help us locate our Galaxy’s center |
|
13-3 Nonvisible observations help map the galactic disk |
|
13-4 The galactic nucleus is an active, crowded place |
|
13-5 Our Galaxy’s disk is surrounded by a two-shell spherical halo of stars and other matter |
|
13-6 The Galaxy is rotating |
|
MYSTERIES AT THE GALACTIC FRINGES |
|
13-7 Most of the matter in the Galaxy has not yet been identified |
|
|
|
|
13-8 The winding of a spiral galaxy’s arms is correlated to the size of its central bulge |
|
13-9 Explosions create flocculent spirals, and waves create grand-design spirals |
|
13-10 Bars of stars run through the central bulges of barred spiral galaxies, and some disk galaxies, the lenticulars, lack spiral arms |
|
13-11 Elliptical galaxies display a wide variety of sizes and masses |
|
13-12 Galaxies without global structure are called irregular |
|
13-13 Hubble presented spiral and elliptical galaxies in a tuning fork–shaped diagram |
|
CLUSTERS AND SUPERCLUSTERS |
|
13-14 Galaxies exist in clusters that may form still larger clumps called superclusters |
|
13-15 Galaxies in a cluster can collide and combine |
|
13-16 Dark matter helps hold together individual galaxies and clusters of galaxies |
|
|
|
|
13-17 The redshifts of superclusters indicate that the universe is indeed expanding |
|
DISCOVERY 13-1 The Tully–Fisher Relation and Other Distance-Measuring Techniques |
|
DISCOVERY 13-2 The Expanding Universe |
|
13-18 Astronomers are looking back to a time when galaxies were first forming |
|
|
|
|
13-19 Quasars look like stars but have huge redshifts |
|
|
|
|
13-20 Active galaxies can be either spiral or elliptical |
|
|
|
|
13-21 Supermassive black holes exist at the centers of most galaxies |
|
13-22 Jets of protons and electrons ejected from around black holes help explain active galaxies |
|
13-23 Gravity focuses light from quasars |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
14-1 General relativity predicts an expanding (or contracting) universe |
|
14-2 The expansion of the universe creates a Dopplerlike redshift |
|
14-3 The Hubble constant is related to the age of the universe |
|
|
|
|
14-4 Remnants of the Big Bang have been detected |
|
14-5 The universe has two symmetries—isotropy and homogeneity |
|
A BRIEF HISTORY OF SPACETIME, MATTER, ENERGY, AND EVERYTHING |
|
14-6 All physical forces in nature were initially unified |
|
14-7 Equations explain the evolution of the universe, even before matter and energy, as we know them, existed |
|
14-8 Homogeneity and isotropy are results of inflation |
|
14-9 During the first second, most of the matter and antimatter in the universe annihilated each other |
|
14-10 The universe changed from being controlled by radiation to being controlled by matter |
|
THE STRUCTURE OF THE UNIVERSE |
|
14-11 Galaxies formed from huge clouds of primordial gas |
|
14-12 Star formation activity determines a galaxy’s initial structure |
|
|
|
|
14-13 The average density of matter is one factor that determines the future of the universe |
|
14-14 The overall shape of spacetime affects the future of the universe |
|
14-15 Dark energy is causing the universe to accelerate outward |
|
|
|
|
DISCOVERY 14-1 Superstring Theory and M-Theory |
|
|
|
|
|
|
15-1 Astrobiology connects the cosmos and the origins of life |
|
15-2 The existence of life depends on chemical and physical properties of matter |
|
15-3 Evidence is mounting that life might exist elsewhere in our solar system |
|
15-4 Searches for advanced civilizations try to detect their radio signals |
|
15-5 The Drake equation: How many civilizations are likely to exist in the Milky Way? |
|
15-6 Humans have been sending signals into space for more than a century |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
C The Planets: Orbital Data |
|
D The Planets: Physical Data |
|
E Major Satellites of the Planets by Mass |
|
|
|
|
G The Visually Brightest Stars |
|
|
|
|
I Some Useful Astronomical Quantities |
|
J Some Useful Physical Constants |
|
K Common Conversions between U.S. Customary and Metric Units |
|
L Mass and Energy Inventory for the Universe |
|
|
|
|
N Periodic Table of the Elements |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Q Radioactivity and the Ages of Objects |
|
|
|
|
S Largest Optical Telescopes in the World |
|
|
|
|
Answers to Computational Questions |
|
|
|
|