Chapter 1. Theory of Mind

Synopsis

Human Development Video Activity
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You must read each slide, and complete any questions on the slide, in sequence.
theory of mind
The understanding that others have feelings, thoughts, beliefs, desires, and intentions that are different from one’s own.
An older sister holding her brother's hand as he walks along balancing on a curb

Theory of Mind

Author

An older sister holding her brother's hands as he walks along balancing on a curb

Lisa Huffman, Ball State University
S. Stavros Valenti, Hofstra University

Synopsis

In this activity, you will consider the childhood development of a theory of mind, the basic understanding of one’s own and others’ mental processes. You will review some of the research on the components of children’s theory of mind and the age range at which children develop this capacity. You will then see videos of children of various ages performing false-belief tasks.

REFERENCES

Gopnik, A., & Astington, J. W. (1988). Children’s understanding of representational change and its relation to the understanding of false-belief and the appearance reality distinction. Child Development, 59, 26–37.

Jenkins, J. M., & Astington, J. W. (1996). Cognitive factors and family structure associated with theory of mind development in young children. Developmental Psychology, 32, 70–78.

Wimmer, H., & Perner, J. (1983). Beliefs about beliefs: Representation and constraining function of wrong beliefs in young children’s understanding of deception. Cognition, 13, 103–128.

What is a “Theory of Mind”?

This boy is playing a trick on his sleeping father. He finds it funny that his father might reach up to scratch his cheek as if he has an itch.

As children grow, their understanding of mental processes becomes more sophisticated. Children under three years of age have a difficult time understanding that individuals can have different viewpoints, intentions, and beliefs. However, older children are often able to make predictions about what others might be thinking and can even use their knowledge of other people’s minds to play a trick!

Developmentalists use a task called the false-belief problem to help determine whether children have acquired a theory of mind, which is a basic understanding of how the mind works and how it influences behavior.

Components of a Theory of Mind

Children who engage in make-believe play often understand the differences between what is make-believe and what is real long before they pass the false-belief task.

Research indicates that all around the world, a major shift in children’s representational ability occurs at about age three or four when they become able to make an inference about another person’s viewpoint. This representational shift is also reflected in children’s language. By the age of two and a half, most children use words such as “think,” “know,” and “pretend.” At about age three, children understand that mental processes occur inside of your head and are different from things that exist outside of your body. For example, when asked if they can touch a dream, a three year old will likely say “no” because dreams are in your “mind.”

Siblings also seem to affect the development of a theory of mind. Children from larger families perform better on false-belief tasks, and this result suggests that older brothers and sisters may help younger siblings understand the concept of the “mind” by talking about their feelings, thoughts, and beliefs.

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Younger Children and a False-Belief Task

In this video, you will see a reenactment of the classic false-belief task. In this experiment, a researcher shows a child a crayon box and asks what the child thinks is inside the box. When the researcher opens the box, the child sees that it actually contains chocolate candies. When the child is asked what someone who is not in the room (i.e. her mother) and has never seen this crayon box would think was in the box, younger children say “candies” as if everyone would know whatever they know!

Question 1.1

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Right! These girls agree that they expect the box to contain crayons.
Sorry. These girls agree that they expect the box to contain crayons.

Younger Children and a False-Belief Task (continued)

Question 1.2

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Right! These girls say that their mothers will know that the crayon box contains chocolate candies.
Sorry. These girls say that their mothers will know that the crayon box contains chocolate candies.

Question 1.3

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Right! Since these girls cannot comprehend that their mothers will not know what they know, these girls are not demonstrating a theory of mind.
Sorry. Since these girls cannot comprehend that their mothers will not know what they know, these girls are not demonstrating a theory of mind.

A Four-Year-Old and a False-Belief Task

There is a clear shift in reasoning ability on this task between the ages of three and five. Older children are better able to understand that someone seeing the box for the first time will think that the box contains crayons. In other words, these older children understand that everyone has their own individual thoughts.

Observe this three-year-old in the false-belief task.

Question 1.4

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Right! He expects the box to contain crayons.
Sorry. He expects the box to contain crayons.

Question 1.5

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Right! He said that his mother will think that the crayon box contains crayons.
Sorry. He said that his mother will think that the crayon box contains crayons.

Question 1.6

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Right! Since this boy predicts that his mother will fall for this deception, he is demonstrating a theory of mind.
Sorry. Since this boy predicts that his mother will fall for this deception, he is demonstrating a theory of mind.

Deceiving Others

Before children develop a clear theory of mind, they are unable to deceive those around them. To play a trick on someone, a child must comprehend that he/she can manipulate another person’s reality. For example, a child with a theory of mind understands that he/she can know where an object is hidden and that another person does not automatically know where that object is. With a theory of mind, a child realizes that his/her perception of reality is distinct from another person’s perception.

As you observed in the videos on the previous screens, children before the age of three or four act as if what they know is the reality or truth that is known by everyone. Therefore, before a child develops a theory of mind, he/she is unable to play a hiding or deception game.

Play the video to watch these two- to six-year-old children attempt a simple hiding game.

Question 1.7

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Your answer should include some of the following observations about the younger children: 1.) When presenting their hands for the researcher to select, some of the younger children only put one hand up on the table so the researcher is naturally always going to choose correctly. 2.) Some of the younger children never put their hands behind their backs to hide where they are putting the candy. 3.) Some of the younger children do not even close the hand that does not contain the candy.

What Can We Conclude?

A girl completing the false-belief task

As you observed in the video clips, there is a clear shift in reasoning ability between the ages of three and five. Older children are able to understand how a trick or a hiding game works and are even able to participate in a deception.

This newly developed ability in the art of misleading someone demonstrates that the older children are able to actually comprehend what another might be seeing or understanding about a particular situation and how that perception may differ from the truth.

The development of theory of mind will continue throughout childhood and be reflected in advances of children’s representational abilities.

Assessment: Check Your Understanding

A boy playing a trick on his father – tickling his cheek with a feather while he is sleeping

Question 1.8

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That’s right! Developmentalists say that a child has achieved a theory of mind when that child can understand both his/her own and others’ emotions, perceptions, and thoughts.
Sorry. Developmentalists say that a child has achieved a theory of mind when that child can understand both his/her own and others’ emotions, perceptions, and thoughts.

Assessment: Check Your Understanding

An older sister holding her brother’s hand as he walks along balancing on a curb

Question 1.9

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Good choice!
Sorry, but this answer is true. Children from larger families are better able to complete false-belief tasks.

Assessment: Check Your Understanding

A young girl performing the false-belief task

Question 1.10

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Good choice!
Sorry, but this answer is true. Research shows that children in all cultures demonstrate similar developmental trends toward acquiring a theory of mind.

Assessment: Check Your Understanding

An older sister pushes her younger brother on a toy cart

Question 1.11

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Most two-year-olds lack a theory of mind, which means that they are unable to understand that others can have different viewpoints, feelings, and/or emotions. Her two-year-old is unable to take the perspective of the baby, who may be distressed at having objects piled on him. The two-year-old may be trying to play with her baby brother rather than trying to hurt him.

Congratulations! You have completed this activity.Total Score: x out of x points (x%) You have received a provisional score for your essay answers, which have been submitted to your instructor.