Chapter 1. Appendix: Reference Handbook

Appendix: Reference Handbook

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Documentation identifies the sources of the ideas and the quotations in your document. Documentation consists of the citations in the text throughout your document and the reference list (or list of works cited) at the end of your document. Documentation serves three basic functions:

Most note taking involves three kinds of activities: paraphrasing, quoting, and summarizing.

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A paraphrase is a restatement, in your own words, of someone else’s words. If you simply copy someone else’s words—even a mere two or three in a row—you must use quotation marks.

In taking notes, what kind of material should you paraphrase? Any information that you think might be useful: background data, descriptions of mechanisms or processes, test results, and so forth.

Figure A.1 shows examples of paraphrasing based on the following discussion. The author is explaining the concept of performance-centered design.

Original Passage

In performance-centered design, the emphasis is on providing support for the structure of the work as well as the information needed to accomplish it. One of the best examples is TurboTax^®, which meets all the three main criteria of effective performance-centered design:

This paraphrase is inappropriate because the three bulleted points are taken word for word from the original. The fact that the student omitted the explanations from the original is irrelevant. These are direct quotes, not paraphrases.

This paraphrase is appropriate because the words are different from those used in the original.

When you turn your notes into a document, you are likely to reword your paraphrases. As you revise your document, check a copy of the original source document to be sure you haven’t unintentionally reverted to the wording from the original source.

Sometimes you will want to quote a source, either to preserve the author’s particularly well-expressed or emphatic phrasing or to lend authority to your discussion. Avoid quoting passages of more than two or three sentences, or your document will look like a mere compilation. Your job is to ­integrate an author’s words and ideas into your own thinking, not merely to introduce a series of quotations.

Although you probably won’t be quoting long passages in your document, recording a complete quotation in your notes will help you recall its meaning and context more accurately when you are ready to integrate it into your own work.

The simplest form of quotation is an author’s exact statement:

As Jones states, “Solar energy won’t make much of a difference for at least a decade.”

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To add an explanatory word or phrase to a quotation, use brackets:

As Nelson states, “It [the oil glut] will disappear before we understand it.”

Use ellipses (three spaced dots) to show that you are omitting part of an ­author’s statement:

According to the documentation style recommended by the Modern Language Association (MLA), if the author’s original statement has ellipses, you should add brackets around the ellipses that you introduce:

Summarizing is the process of rewriting a passage in your own words to make it shorter while still retaining its essential message. Writers summarize to help them learn a body of information or create a draft of one or more of the summaries that will go into the document.

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APA (American Psychological Association) style consists of two elements: citations in the text and a list of references at the end of the document.

APA Style for Textual Citations

1. Summarized or Paraphrased Material 455

2. Quoted Material or Specific Fact 455

3. Source with Multiple Authors 455

4. Source Authored by an Organization 456

5. Source with an Unknown Author 456

6. Multiple Authors with the Same Last Name 456

7. Multiple Sources in One Citation 456

8. Personal Communication 457

9. Electronic Document 457

APA Style for Reference List Entries

BOOKS

10. Book by One Author 458

11. Book by Multiple Authors 458

12. Multiple Books by the Same Author 459

13. Book Authored by an Organization 459

14. Book by an Unknown Author 459

15. Edited Book 459

16. Chapter or Section in an Edited Book 459

17. Book in an Edition Other Than the First 459

18. Multivolume Work 459

19. Translated Book 460

20. Non-English Book 460

21. Entry in a Reference Work 460

PERIODICALS

22. Journal Article 460

23. Magazine Article 460

24. Newspaper Article 460

25. Newsletter Article 460

ELECTRONIC SOURCES

26. Nonperiodical Web Document 461

Journal Articles

27. Article with DOI Assigned 461

28. Article with No DOI Assigned 461

29. Preprint Version of Article 461

Electronic Books

30. Entire Book 461

Dissertations and Theses

31. Dissertation Retrieved from Database 462

Reference Materials

32. Online Encyclopedia 462

33. Online Dictionary 462

34. Wiki 462

Raw Data

35. Data Set 462

36. Graphic Representation of Data 462

37. Qualitative Data 462

Other Electronic Documents

38. Technical or Research Report 462

39. Presentation Slides 463

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General-Interest Media and Alternative Presses

40. Newspaper Article 463

41. Audio Podcast 463

42. Online Magazine Content Not Found in Print Version 463

Online Communities

43. Message Posted to an Electronic Mailing List, Online Forum, or Discussion Group 463

44. Blog Post 463

45. Email Message or Real-Time Communication 464

OTHER SOURCES

46. Technical or Research Report 464

47. Government Document 464

48. Brochure or Pamphlet 464

49. Article from Conference Proceedings 464

50. Lecture or Speech 464

51. Audio Recording 464

52. Motion Picture 465

53. Television Program 465

54. Published Interview 465

55. Personal Interview 465

56. Personal Correspondence 465

57. Unpublished Data 465

In APA style, a textual citation typically includes the name of the source’s author and the date of its publication. Textual citations vary depending on the type of information cited, the number of authors, and the context of the citation. The following models illustrate a variety of common textual citations; for additional examples, consult the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association.

1. Summarized or Paraphrased Material For material or ideas that you have summarized or paraphrased, include the author’s name and the publication date in parentheses immediately following the borrowed information.

This phenomenon was identified more than 60 years ago (Wilkinson, 1948).

If your sentence already includes the source’s name, do not repeat it in the parenthetical notation.

Wilkinson (1948) identified this phenomenon more than 60 years ago.

2. Quoted Material or Specific Fact If the reference is to a specific fact, idea, or quotation, add the page number(s) from the source to your citation.

This phenomenon was identified more than 60 years ago (Wilkinson, 1948, p. 36).

Wilkinson (1948) identified this phenomenon more than 60 years ago (p. 36).

3. Source with Multiple Authors For a source written by two authors, cite both names. Use an ampersand (&) in the parenthetical citation itself, but use the word and in regular text.

(Tyshenko & Paterson, 2014)

Tyshenko and Paterson (2014) argued . . .

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For a source written by three, four, or five authors, include all the names the first time you cite the reference; after that, include only the last name of the first author followed by et al.

First Text Citation

Cashman, Walls, and Thomas (2015) argued . . .

Subsequent Citations

Cashman et al. (2015) found . . .

For a source written by six or more authors, use only the first author’s name followed by et al.

(Marken et al., 2016)

Marken et al. (2016) reported . . .

4. Source Authored by an Organization If the author is an organization rather than a person, use the name of the organization.

There is currently ongoing discussion of the scope and practice of nursing informatics (American Nurses Association, 2015).

In a recent publication, the American Nurses Association (2015) discusses the scope and practice of nursing informatics.

If the organization name is commonly abbreviated, you may include the abbreviation in the first citation and use it in any subsequent citations.

First Text Citation

(International Business Machines [IBM], 2016)

Subsequent Citations

(IBM, 2016)

5. Source with an Unknown Author If the source does not identify an author, use a shortened version of the title in your parenthetical citation.

Hawking made the discovery that under precise conditions, thermal radiation could exit black holes (“World Scientists,” 2009).

If the author is identified as anonymous—a rare occurrence—treat Anonymous as a real name.

(Anonymous, 2016)

6. Multiple Authors with the Same Last Name Use first initials if two or more sources have authors with the same last name.

B. Porter (2012) created a more stable platform for database transfers, while A. L. Porter (2012) focused primarily on latitudinal peer-to-peer outcome interference.

7. Multiple Sources in One Citation When you refer to two or more sources in one citation, present the sources in alphabetical order, separated by a semicolon.

This phenomenon has been well documented (Houlding, 2016; Jessen, 2015).

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8. Personal Communication When you cite personal interviews, phone calls, letters, memos, and emails, include the words personal communication and the date of the communication.

D. E. Walls (personal communication, April 3, 2016) provided the prior history of his . . .

9. Electronic Document Cite the author and date for an electronic source as you would for other kinds of documents. If the author is unknown, give a shortened version of the title in your parenthetical citation. If the date is unknown, use n.d. (for no date).

Interpersonal relationships are complicated by differing goals (Hoffman, n.d.).

If the document is posted as a PDF file, include the page number in the citation. If a page number is not available but the source contains paragraph numbers, give the paragraph number.

(Tong, 2010, para. 4)

If no paragraph or page number is available and the source has headings, cite the appropriate heading and paragraph.

The CDC (2007) warns that babies born to women who smoke during pregnancy are 30% more likely to be born prematurely (The Reality section, para. 3).

A reference list provides the information your readers will need in order to find each source you have cited in the text. It should not include sources you read but did not use.

Following are some guidelines for an APA-style reference list.

Following are models of reference list entries for a variety of sources. For further examples of APA-style citations, consult the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association.

BOOKS

10. Book by One Author Begin with the author’s last name, followed by the first initial or initials. Include a space between initials. Place the year of publication in parentheses, then give the title of the book, followed by the location and name of the publisher.

Power, G. A. (2010). Dementia beyond drugs: Changing the culture of care. Baltimore, MD: Health Professions Press.

11. Book by Multiple Authors When citing a work by from two to seven authors, separate the authors’ names with a comma or commas, and use an ampersand (&) instead of and before the final author’s name.

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Tyshenko, M. G., & Paterson, C. (2010). SARS unmasked: Risk communication of pandemics and influenza in Canada. Montreal, Quebec, Canada: McGill-Queen’s University Press.

To cite more than seven authors, list only the first six, followed by three dots (an ellipsis) and the last author’s name.

12. Multiple Books by the Same Author Arrange the entries by date, with the earliest date first.

Tabloski, P. A. (2007). Clinical handbook for gerontological nursing. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson/Prentice Hall.

Tabloski, P. A. (2010). Gerontological nursing. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

If you use multiple works by the same author written in the same year, arrange the books alphabetically by title and include a, b, and so forth after the year—both in your reference list and in your parenthetical citations.

Agger, B. (2007a). Fast families, virtual children: A critical sociology of families and schooling. Boulder, CO: Paradigm.

Agger, B. (2007b). Public sociology: From social facts to literary acts. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.

13. Book Authored by an Organization Use the full name of the organization in place of an author’s name. If the organization is also the publisher, use the word Author in place of the publisher’s name.

American Nurses Association. (2010). Nursing’s social policy statement: The essence of the profession (3rd ed.). Silver Spring, MD: Author.

14. Book by an Unknown Author If the author of the book is unknown, begin with the title in italics.

The PDR pocket guide to prescription drugs (9th ed.). (2010). New York, NY: Pocket Books.

15. Edited Book Place the abbreviation Ed. (singular) or Eds. (plural) in parentheses after the name(s), followed by a period.

Haugen, D., Musser, S., & Lovelace, K. (Eds.). (2010). Global warming. Detroit, MI: Greenhaven Press.

16. Chapter or Section in an Edited Book

Jyonouchi, H. (2010). Possible impact of innate immunity in autism. In A. Chauhan, V. Chauhan, & W. T. Brown (Eds.), Autism: Oxidative stress, inflammation, and immune abnormalities (pp. 245–276). Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.

17. Book in an Edition Other Than the First Include the edition number in parentheses following the title.

Quinn, G. R. (2010). Behavioral science (2nd ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Medical.

18. Multivolume Work Include the number of volumes after the title.

Weiner, I. B., & Craighead, W. E. (Eds.). (2010). The Corsini encyclopedia of psychology (Vols. 1–4). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

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19. Translated Book Name the translator after the title.

Bieler, A., & Gutmann, H.-M. (2010). Embodying grace: Proclaiming justification in the real world (L. M. Maloney, Trans.). Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press.

20. Non-English Book Give the original title, then the English translation in brackets.

Hernandez, G. H., Moreno, A. M., Zaragoza, F. G., & Porras, A. C. (Eds.). (2010). Tratado de medicina farmacéutica [Treatise on pharmaceutical medicine]. Madrid, Spain: Editorial Médica Panamericana.

21. Entry in a Reference Work Begin with the title of the entry if it has no author.

Kohlrabi. (2010). In R. T. Wood (Ed.), The new whole foods encyclopedia: A comprehensive resource for healthy eating (2nd ed., pp. 178–179). New York, NY: Penguin Books.

PERIODICALS

22. Journal Article Follow the author’s name and the year of publication with the article title; then give the journal title, followed by a comma. For all journals, include the volume number (italicized). For journals that begin each issue with page 1, also include the issue number in parentheses (not italicized). Insert a comma and end with the page number(s).

Cumsille, P., Darling, N., & Martinez, M. L. (2010). Shading the truth: The pattern of adolescents’ decisions to avoid issues, disclose, or lie to parents. Journal of Adolescence, 33, 285–296.

23. Magazine Article Include the month after the year. If it’s a weekly magazine, include the day. Give the volume and issue numbers, if any, after the magazine title.

Stix, G. (2011, March). The neuroscience of true grit. Scientific American, 304(3), 28–33.

24. Newspaper Article Include the specific publication date following the year.

Seltz, J. (2010, December 26). Internet policies examined: Schools aim to clarify social rules. Boston Globe, p. 1.

25. Newsletter Article Cite a newsletter article as you would a magazine article. If the date is given as a season, insert a comma following the year and then include the season.

Meyerhoff, M. K. (2010, September/October). Paying attention to attention. Pediatrics for Parents, 26(9/10), 8–9.

ELECTRONIC SOURCES

Generally, include the same elements for electronic sources as you would for print sources. Include any information required to locate the item. Many scholarly publishers are now assigning a digital object identifier (DOI) to journal articles and other documents. A DOI is a unique alphanumeric string assigned by a registration agency. It provides a persistent link to unchanging content on the Internet. When available, substitute the DOI for a URL. If the content is subject to change, include the retrieval date before the URL. Use the exact URL for open-source material; use the home-page or menu-page URL for subscription-only material or content presented in frames, which make exact URLs unworkable. Break URLs before a punctuation mark (or after http://), and avoid using punctuation after a URL or DOI so as not to confuse the reader.

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26. Nonperiodical Web Document To cite a nonperiodical web document, provide as much of the following information as possible: author’s name, date of publication or most recent update (use n.d. if there is no date), document title (in italics), and URL (or DOI, if available) for the document.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2010, June 1). Teens behind the wheel: Graduated driver licensing. Retrieved from http://www.cdc.gov/MotorVehicleSafety/Teen_Drivers/GDL/Teens_Behind_Wheel.html

If the author of a document is not identified, begin the reference with the title of the document. If the document is from a university program’s website, identify the host institution and the program or department, followed by a colon and the URL for the document.

Safety manual. (2011, March 18). Retrieved from Harvard University, Center for Nanoscale Systems Web site: http://www.cns.fas.harvard.edu/users/Forms/CNS_Safety_Manual.pdf

Journal Articles

27. Article with DOI Assigned

Iemolo, F., Cavallaro, T., & Rizzuto, N. (2010). Atypical Alzheimer’s disease: A case report. Neurological Sciences, 31, 643–646. doi:10.1007/s10072-010-0334-1

28. Article with No DOI Assigned

Srivastava, R. K., & More, A. T. (2010). Some aesthetic considerations for over-the-counter (OTC) pharmaceutical products. International Journal of Biotechnology, 11(3–4), 267–283. Retrieved from http://www.inderscience.com

29. Preprint Version of Article

Wang, T. J., Larson, M. G., Vasan, R. S., Cheng, S., Rhee, E. P., McCabe, E., . . . Gerszten, R. E. (2011). Metabolite profiles and the risk of developing diabetes. Nature Medicine. Advance online publication. doi:10.1038/nm.2307

Electronic Books

30. Entire Book Use “Retrieved from” if the URL leads to the information itself and “Available from” if the URL leads to information on how to obtain the content.

Einstein, A. (n.d.). Relativity: The special and general theory. Retrieved from http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/5001

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Dissertations and Theses

31. Dissertation Retrieved from Database For a commercial database, include the database name, followed by the accession number. For an institutional database, include the URL.

Siegel, R. S. (2010). Mediators of the association between risk for mania and close relationship quality in adolescents (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from http://scholarlyrepository.miami.edu/oa_dissertations/426

Reference Materials

Give the home-page or index-page URL for reference works.

32. Online Encyclopedia

Cross, M. S. (2011). Social history. In J. H. Marsh (Ed.), The Canadian encyclopedia. Retrieved from http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com

33. Online Dictionary

Conductance. (n.d.). In Merriam-Webster’s online dictionary. Retrieved from http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/conductance

34. Wiki

Tsunami. (n.d.). Retrieved March 20, 2016, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsunami

Raw Data

35. Data Set

Department of Health and Human Services. (2010). FDA peanut product recalls [Data set]. Retrieved from http://www.data.gov/communities/node/81/data_tools/350

36. Graphic Representation of Data

U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2011, April 4). Civilian unemployment rate (UNRATE) [Line graph]. Retrieved from Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Web site: http://research.stlouisfed.org/fred2/series/UNRATE

37. Qualitative Data

Jaques, C. (2010). They called it slums but it was never a slum to me [Audio stream]. Retrieved from StoryCorps Web site: http://storycorps.org/listen/stories/category/historias

Other Electronic Documents

38. Technical or Research Report

Moran, R., Rampey, B. D., Dion, G. S., & Donahue, P. L. (2008). National Indian education study 2007, Part 1. Performance of American Indian and Alaska native students at grades 4 and 8 on NAEP 2007 reading and mathematics assessments (Report No. NCES 2008–457). Retrieved from National Center for Education Statistics Web site: http://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/pdf/studies/2008457.pdf

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39. Presentation Slides

Wyominginspector. (2010). Cell phone use in the mining industry [PowerPoint slides]. Retrieved from http://www.slideshare.net/wyominginspector/cell-phone-use-in-the-mining-industry

General-Interest Media and Alternative Presses

40. Newspaper Article

Applebaum, A. (2011, February 14). Channeling Egypt’s energy of the crowd into positive change. The Washington Post. Retrieved from http://www.washingtonpost.com

41. Audio Podcast Include the presenter, producer, or other authority, if known; date; episode title; any episode or show identifier in brackets, such as [Show 13]; show name; the words Audio podcast in brackets; and retrieval information.

Cooper, Q. (Presenter). (2011, February 10). Science in Egypt. The Material World [Audio podcast]. Retrieved from http://www.bbc.co.uk/podcasts/series/material#playepisode8

42. Online Magazine Content Not Found in Print Version

Greenemeier, L. (2010, November 17). Buzz kill: FDA cracks down on caffeinated alcoholic beverages. Scientific American. Retrieved from http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id5fda-caffeinated-alcohol

Online Communities

43. Message Posted to an Electronic Mailing List, Online Forum, or Discussion Group If an online posting is not archived and therefore is not retrievable, cite it as a personal communication and do not include it in the reference list. If the posting can be retrieved from an archive, provide the author’s name (or the author’s screen name if the real name is not available), the exact date of the posting, the title or subject line or thread name, and a description of the type of post in brackets. Finish with the address.

Gomez, T. N. (2010, December 20). Food found in archaeological environments [Electronic mailing list message]. Retrieved from http://cool.conservation-us.org/byform/mailing-lists/cdl/2010/1297.html

44. Blog Post

Joseph j7uy5. (2010, May 11). Another rTMS update [Web log post]. Retrieved from http://scienceblogs.com/corpuscallosum/2010/05/another_rtms_update.php

Telecom. (2011, February 22). Cellphone use tied to changes in brain activity [Web log comment]. Retrieved from http://well.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/02/22/cellphone-use-tied-to-changes-in-brain-activity/#comment-643942

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45. Email Message or Real-Time Communication Do not cite email messages in the reference list. Instead, cite them in the text as personal communications. (See item 8 on page 457.)

OTHER SOURCES

46. Technical or Research Report Include an identifying number in parentheses after the report title. If appropriate, include the name of the service used to locate the item in parentheses after the publisher.

Arai, M., & Mazuka, R. (2010). Linking syntactic priming to language development: A visual world eye-tracking study (TL2010-18). Tokyo: Institute of Electronics, Information and Communication Engineers.

47. Government Document For most government agencies, use the abbreviation U.S. instead of spelling out United States. Include any identifying document number after the publication title.

U.S. Department of State. (2010, June). Trafficking in persons report (10th ed.). Washington, DC: Government Printing Office.

48. Brochure or Pamphlet After the title of the document, include the word Brochure or Pamphlet in brackets.

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2010, October). How to clean and disinfect schools to help slow the spread of flu [Pamphlet]. Washington, DC: Author.

49. Article from Conference Proceedings After the proceedings title, give the page numbers on which the article appears.

Sebastianelli, R., Tamimi, N., Gnanendran, K., & Stark, R. (2010). An examination of factors affecting perceived quality and satisfaction in online MBA courses. In Proceedings of the 41st Annual Meeting of the Decision Sciences Institute (pp. 1641–1646). Atlanta, GA: Decision Sciences Institute.

50. Lecture or Speech

Culicover, P. W. (2010, March 3). Grammar and complexity: Language at the intersection of competence and performance. Lecture presented at the Ohio State University, Columbus, OH.

51. Audio Recording Give the role (narrator, producer, director, or the like) of the person whose name appears at the beginning of the entry in parentheses after the name. Give the medium in brackets after the title.

Young, J. K. (Lecturer). (2007). The building blocks of human life: Understanding mature cells and stem cells [CD]. Prince Frederick, MD: Recorded Books.

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52. Motion Picture Give the name of at least one primary contributor, such as the producer or director, and follow the film’s title with the words Motion picture in brackets. List the country in which the film was produced and the studio’s name. If the film was not widely distributed, give instead the distributor’s name and address in parentheses.

Fincher, D. (Director). (2010). The social network [Motion picture]. United States: Columbia Pictures.

53. Television Program Start with the director, producer, or other principal contributor and the date the program aired. Include the words Television broadcast or Television series in brackets after the program title.

Fine, S. (Executive Producer). (2011). NOVA scienceNOW [Television series]. Boston, MA: WGBH.

For a single episode in a television series, start with the writer and director of the episode or other relevant editorial personnel. Include the words Television series episode in brackets after the episode title. Also include information about the series. End with the location and name of the station or network.

Dart, K., Evans, N., & Stubberfield, T. (Producers & Directors). (2010, October 26). Emergency mine rescue [Television series episode]. In H. Swartz (Executive Producer), NOVA. Boston, MA: WGBH.

54. Published Interview If it is not clear from the title that the entry is an interview, or if there is no title, include the words Interview with and the subject’s name in brackets.

Jackson, L. (2010, December 6). The EPA is not the villain [Interview with Daniel Stone]. Newsweek, 156(23), 14.

55. Personal Interview Consider interviews you conduct, whether in person or over the telephone, as personal communications and do not include them in the reference list. Instead, cite them in the text. (See item 8 on page 457.)

56. Personal Correspondence Like emails, personal letters and memos should not be included in the reference list. Instead, cite them in the text. (See item 8 on page 457.)

57. Unpublished Data Where the title would normally appear, include a description of the data in brackets.

Standifer, M. (2007). [Daily temperatures, 2007, Barton Springs municipal pool, Austin, TX]. Unpublished raw data.

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Following is a sample reference list using the APA citation system.

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IEEE style consists of two elements: citations in the text and a reference list at the end of the document.

IEEE Style for Reference List Entries

BOOKS

1. Book by One Author 469

2. Book by Multiple Authors 469

3. Book Authored by an Organization 469

4. Edited Book 469

5. Chapter or Section in an Edited Book 469

6. Book in an Edition Other Than the First 469

PRINT PERIODICALS

7. Journal Article 470

8. Magazine Article 470

9. Newspaper Article 470

ELECTRONIC SOURCES

10. Article in an Online Journal or Magazine 470

11. Website 470

12. Document on a Government Website 470

OTHER SOURCES

13. Thesis or Dissertation 470

14. Standard 470

15. Scientific or Technical Report 470

16. Paper Published in Conference Proceedings 471

17. Government Document 471

18. Unpublished Document 471

In the IEEE (originally, Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) documentation system, citations in the text are bracketed numbers, keyed to a numbered list of references that appears at the end of the document. Entries in the list are arranged in the order in which they are cited in the text and are numbered sequentially. Once a reference has been listed, the same number is used in all subsequent citations of that source.

To cite references in the text, place the reference number or numbers immediately after the author’s name, in square brackets, before any punctuation. Use et al. if there are three or more author names.

A recent study by Goldfinkel [5] shows that this is not an efficient solution. Murphy [8]–[10] comes to a different conclusion.

You can also use the bracketed citation number or numbers as a noun.

In addition, [5] shows that this is not an efficient solution; however, [8]–[10] come to a different conclusion.

NOTE: Because references are listed in the order in which they first appear in the text, if you add a new citation within the text while rewriting or editing, you will need to renumber the reference list as well as the citations in the text. For example, if in rewriting you were to add a new reference between the first citations of the Murphy references originally numbered [8] and [9], the previous example would then read:

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. . . [8], [10], [11] come to a different conclusion.

To make a reference more precise, you can provide extra information.

A recent study by Goldfinkel [5, pp. 12–19] shows that this is not an efficient solution.

The following guidelines will help you prepare IEEE-style references. For additional information on formatting entries, consult the latest edition of The IEEE Editorial Style Manual.

BOOKS

1. Book by One Author Include the author’s first initial and middle initial (if available), the author’s last name, the book title (in italics), the place of publication, the publisher, the year of publication, and the page range of the material referenced.

[1] B. Mehlenbacher, Instruction and Technology: Designs for Everyday Learning. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2010, pp. 22–28.

2. Book by Multiple Authors List all the authors’ names. Use et al. after the first author’s name only if the other names are not given. Do not invert names, and include a comma before and only if there are three or more names.

[2] S.-T. Yau and S. J. Nadis, The Shape of Inner Space: String Theory and the Geometry of the Universe’s Hidden Dimensions. New York: Basic Books, 2010, pp. 254–255.

3. Book Authored by an Organization The organization takes the place of the author.

[3] World Bank, World Development Report 2011: Conflict, Security, and Development. Washington, DC: World Bank, 2011, pp. 25–31.

4. Edited Book Include the abbreviation Ed. (singular) or Eds. (plural) after the name(s).

[4] J. Dibbell, Ed., The Best Technology Writing 2010. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2010, pp. 157–162.

5. Chapter or Section in an Edited Book Give the author and the title of the chapter or section first (enclosed in quotation marks and with only the first word capitalized), followed by the word in, the book title, and the book editor(s). Then give the publication information for the book and the page numbers where the chapter or section appears.

[5] E. Castronova, “The changing meaning of play,” in Online Communication and Collaboration: A Reader, H. M. Donelan, K. L. Kear, and M. Ramage, Eds. New York: Routledge, 2010, pp. 184–189.

6. Book in an Edition Other Than the First The edition number follows the title of the book and is preceded by a comma.

[6] L. Xinju, Laser Technology, 2nd ed. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2010, pp. 203–205.

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PRINT PERIODICALS

7. Journal Article Include the author, the article title, and the journal title (abbreviated where possible), followed by the volume number, issue number, page number(s), abbreviated month, and year (or abbreviated month, day, and year for weekly periodicals).

[7] R. C. Weber, P.-Y. Lin, E. J. Garnero, Q. Williams, and P. Lognonne, “Seismic detection of the lunar core,” Science, vol. 331, no. 6015, pp. 309–312, Jan. 21, 2011.

8. Magazine Article List the author, the article title, and the magazine title (abbreviated where possible), followed by the page number(s) and the issue date.

[8] J. Villasenor, “The hacker in your hardware,” Scientific Amer., pp. 82–87, Aug. 2010.

9. Newspaper Article List the author, the article title, and the newspaper name, followed by the section and the date.

[9] M. Woolhouse, “For many, snow day is business as usual,” Boston Globe, sec. B, Jan. 13, 2011.

ELECTRONIC SOURCES

10. Article in an Online Journal or Magazine

[10] R. Marani and A. G. Perri. (2010). An electronic medical device for preventing and improving the assisted ventilation of intensive care unit patients. Open Elect. Electron. Eng. J. [Online]. 4, pp. 16–20. Available: http://www.benthamscience.com/open/toeej/openaccess2.htm

11. Website

[11] American Institute of Physics. (2011). American Institute of Physics [Online]. Available: http://www.aip.org

12. Document on a Government Website

[12] U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Preparation and planning for bioterrorism emergencies [Online]. Available: http://emergency.cdc.gov/bioterrorism/prep.asp

OTHER SOURCES

13. Thesis or Dissertation

[13] J. L. Beutler, “Frequency response and gain enhancement of solid-state impactionization multipliers (SIMs),” Ph.D. dissertation, Dept. Elect. Eng., Brigham Young Univ., Provo, UT, 2010.

14. Standard For standards, include the title in italics, the standard number, and the date.

[14] Testing and Evaluation Protocol for Spectroscopic Personal Radiation Detectors (SPRDs) for Homeland Security, ANSI Standard T&E Protocol N42.48, 2010.

15. Scientific or Technical Report

[15] E. G. Fernando, “Investigation of rainfall and regional factors for maintenance cost allocation,” Texas Transportation Inst. Texas A&M, College Station, TX, Report 5-4519-01-1, Aug. 2010.

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16. Paper Published in Conference Proceedings

[16] T. O’Brien, A. Ritz, B. J. Raphael, and D. H. Laidlaw, “Gremlin: An interactive visualization model for analyzing genomic rearrangements,” in Proc. IEEE Information Visualization Conf., 2010, vol. 16, no. 6, pp. 918–926.

17. Government Document

[17] W. R. Selbig and R. T. Bannerman, “Characterizing the size distribution of particles in urban stormwater by use of fixed-point sample-collection methods,” U.S. Geological Survey, Open-File Report 2011-1052, 2011.

18. Unpublished Document

[18] S. Reed, “An approach to evaluating the autistic spectrum in uncooperative adolescents,” unpublished.

Following is a sample reference list using the IEEE numbered reference system. The references are listed in the order in which they might appear in a fictional document.

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MLA (Modern Language Association) style consists of two elements: citations in the text and a list of works cited at the end of the document.

MLA Style for Textual Citations

1. Entire Work 473

2. Specific Page(s) 473

3. Work Without Page Numbers 473

4. Multiple Sources by the Same Author 473

5. Source with Multiple Authors 474

6. Source Quoted Within Another Source 474

7. Source Authored by an Organization 474

8. Source with an Unknown Author 474

9. Multiple Sources in One Citation 474

10. Multiple Authors with the Same Last Name 475

11. Chapter or Section in an Edited Book 475

12. Multivolume Work 475

13. Entry in a Reference Work 475

14. Electronic Source 475

MLA Style for Works-Cited Entries

BOOKS

15. Book by One Author 477

16. Book by Multiple Authors 477

17. Multiple Books by the Same Author 477

18. Book Authored by an Organization 477

19. Book by an Unknown Author 477

20. Edited Book 477

21. Chapter or Section in an Edited Book 478

22. Book in an Edition Other Than the First 478

23. Multivolume Work 478

24. Book That Is Part of a Series 478

25. Translated Book 478

26. Book in a Language Other Than English 478

27. Entry in a Reference Work 478

PRINT PERIODICALS

28. Journal Article 479

29. Magazine Article 479

30. Newspaper Article 479

31. Unsigned Article 479

32. Article That Skips Pages 479

33. Review 479

ELECTRONIC SOURCES

34. Entire Website 479

35. Short Work from a Website 480

36. Online Book 480

37. Article in an Online Periodical 480

38. Article from a Database or Subscription Service 480

39. Dissertation 480

40. CD-ROM 480

41. Email Message 481

42. Online Posting 481

43. Other Online Sources 481

OTHER SOURCES

44. Government Document 481

45. Article from Conference Proceedings 482

46. Pamphlet 482

47. Report 482

48. Interview 482

49. Letter or Memo 482

50. Lecture or Speech 482

51. Map or Chart 483

52. Photograph or Work of Art 483

53. Legal Source 483

54. Radio or Television Program 483

55. Film, Video, or DVD 483

56. Advertisement 484

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In MLA style, the textual citation typically includes the name of the source’s author and the number of the page being referred to. Textual citations vary depending on the type of source cited and the context of the citation. The following models illustrate a variety of common situations; for additional examples, consult the MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers.

1. Entire Work If you are referring to the whole source, not to a particular page or pages, use only the author’s name.

Harwood’s work gives us a careful framework for understanding the aging process and how it affects communication.

2. Specific Page(s) Immediately following the material you are quoting or paraphrasing, include a parenthetical reference with the author’s name and the page number(s) being referred to. Do not add a comma between the name and the page number, and do not use the abbreviation p. or pp.

Each feature evolves independently, so there can’t be a steady progression of fossils representing change (Prothero 27).

If your sentence already includes the author’s name, put only the page number in the parenthetical citation.

Prothero explains why we won’t find a steady progression of human fossils approaching modern humans, as each feature evolves independently (27).

3. Work Without Page Numbers Give a paragraph, section, or screen number, if provided. Use par. (singular) or pars. (plural) to indicate paragraph numbers. Either spell out or use standard abbreviations (such as col., fig., pt., ch., or l.) for other identifying words. Use a comma after the author’s name if it appears in the parenthetical citation.

Under the right conditions, humanitarian aid forestalls health epidemics in the aftermath of natural disasters (Bourmah, pars. 3–6).

Maternal leave of at least three months has a significantly positive effect on the development of attachment in the infant (Ling, screen 2).

4. Multiple Sources by the Same Author If you cite two or more sources by the same author, either include the full source title in the text or add a shortened title after the author’s name in the parenthetical citation to prevent confusion.

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Chatterjee believes that diversification in investments can take many forms (Diversification 13).

Risk is a necessary component of a successful investment strategy (Chatterjee, Failsafe 25).

5. Source with Multiple Authors For a source written by two or three authors, cite all the names.

Grendel and Chang assert that . . .

This phenomenon was verified in the late 1970s (Grendel and Chang 281).

For a source written by four or more authors, either list all the authors or give only the first author, followed by the abbreviation et al. Follow the same format as in the works-cited list.

Studies show that incidences of type 2 diabetes are widespread and rising quickly (Gianarikas et al.).

6. Source Quoted Within Another Source Give the source of the quotation in the text. In the parenthetical citation, give the author and page number(s) of the source in which you found the quotation, preceded by qtd. in.

Freud describes the change in men’s egos as science proved that the earth was not the center of the universe and that man was descended from animals (qtd. in Prothero 89–90).

Only the source by Prothero will appear in the list of works cited.

7. Source Authored by an Organization If the author is an organization rather than a person, use the name of the organization. When giving the organization’s name in parentheses, abbreviate common words.

In a recent booklet, the Association of Sleep Disorders discusses the causes of narcolepsy (2–3).

The causes of narcolepsy are discussed in a recent booklet (Assn. of Sleep Disorders 2–3).

8. Source with an Unknown Author If the source does not identify an author, use a shortened form of the title in your parenthetical citation.

Multidisciplinary study in academia is becoming increasingly common (“Interdisciplinary” 23).

In a web document, the author’s name is often at the end of the document or in small print on the home page. Do some research before assuming that a website does not have an author. Remember that an organization might be the author. (See item 7.)

9. Multiple Sources in One Citation When you refer to two or more sources at the same point, separate the sources with a semicolon.

Much speculation exists about the origin of this theory (Brady 42; Yao 388).

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10. Multiple Authors with the Same Last Name If the authors of two or more sources have the same last name, spell out the first names of those authors in the text and use the authors’ first initials in parenthetical citations.

In contrast, Albert Martinez has a radically different explanation (29).

The economy’s strength may be derived from its growing bond market (J. Martinez 87).

11. Chapter or Section in an Edited Book Cite the author of the work, not the editor of the anthology.

Wolburg and Treise note that college binge drinkers include students with both high and low GPAs (4).

12. Multivolume Work If you use only one volume of a multivolume work, list the volume number in the works-cited list only. If you use more than one volume of a multivolume work, indicate the specific volume you are referring to, followed by a colon and the page number, in your parenthetical citation.

Many religious organizations opposed the Revolutionary War (Hazlitt 2: 423).

13. Entry in a Reference Work If the entry does not have an author, use the word or term you looked up. You do not need to cite page numbers for entries in encyclopedias and dictionaries because they are arranged alphabetically.

The term groupism is important to understand when preparing to communicate with Japanese business counterparts (“Groupism”).

14. Electronic Source When citing electronic sources, follow the same rules as for print sources, providing author names and page numbers, if available. If an author’s name is not given, use either the full title of the source in the text or a shortened version of the title in the parenthetical citation. (See item 8 on page 474.) If no page numbers appear, include other identifying numbers, such as paragraph or section numbers. (See item 3 on page 473.)

Twenty million books were in print by the early sixteenth century (Rawlins, ch. 3, sec. 2).

A list of works cited provides the information your readers will need to find each source you have cited in the text. It should not include sources you consulted for background reading. Following are some guidelines for an MLA-style list of works cited.

Following are models of works-cited-list entries for a variety of sources. For further examples of MLA-style citations, consult the MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers.

BOOKS

477

15. Book by One Author Include the author’s full name, in reverse order, followed by the book title. Next give the location and name of the publisher, followed by the year of publication and the medium.

Gleick, James. The Information: A History, a Theory, a Flood. New York: Pantheon, 2011. Print.

16. Book by Multiple Authors For a book by two or three authors, present the names in the sequence in which they appear on the title page. Use reverse order for the name of the first author only. Use a comma to separate the names of the authors.

Burt, Stephen, and David Mikics. The Art of the Sonnet. Cambridge: Belknap-Harvard UP, 2010. Print.

For a book by four or more authors, either name all the authors or use the abbreviation et al. after the first author’s name.

Thomas, David N., et al. The Biology of Polar Regions. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2008. Print.

17. Multiple Books by the Same Author For the second and subsequent entries by the same author, use three hyphens followed by a period in place of the name. Arrange the entries alphabetically by title, ignoring An or The.

Hassan, Robert. Empires of Speed: Time and the Acceleration of Politics and Society. Leiden: Brill, 2009. Print.

---. The Information Society: Cyber Dreams and Digital Nightmares. Cambridge, Eng.: Polity, 2008. Print.

18. Book Authored by an Organization The organization takes the position of the author.

World Bank. Atlas of Global Development: A Visual Guide to the World’s Greatest Challenges. Washington: World Bank, 2011. Print.

19. Book by an Unknown Author If the author of the book is unknown, begin with the title.

The World Almanac Notebook Atlas. Union: Hammond, 2010. Print.

Note that you would ignore The in alphabetizing this entry.

20. Edited Book List the book editor’s name, followed by ed. (or eds. if more than one editor), in place of the author’s name.

Levi, Scott Cameron, and Ron Sela, eds. Islamic Central Asia: An Anthology of Historical Sources. Bloomington: Indiana UP, 2010. Print.

478

21. Chapter or Section in an Edited Book Give the author and title of the article first, followed by the book title and editor. Present the editor’s name in normal order, preceded by Ed. (for Edited by). After the publication information, give the pages on which the material appears.

Marx, Karl. “Proletarians and Communists.” Marx Today: Selected Works and Recent Debates. Ed. John F. Sitton. New York: Palgrave-Macmillan, 2010. 51–56. Print.

22. Book in an Edition Other Than the First List the edition number after the title of the book.

Geary, Patrick, ed. Readings in Medieval History. 4th ed. North York, ON: U of Toronto P, 2010. Print.

23. Multivolume Work If you use two or more volumes from a multivolume work, indicate the total number of volumes (for example, 4 vols.) before the place of publication. If you use only one volume, give the volume number before the place of publication. If you wish, give the total number of volumes after the medium.

Sophocles. The Complete Sophocles. Ed. Peter Burian and Alan Shapiro. Vol. 1. New York: Oxford UP, 2010. Print. 2 vols.

24. Book That Is Part of a Series End the entry with the series name as it appears on the title page (but use common abbreviations, such as Ser.), followed by the series number, if any. Note that the series information follows the medium.

Aune, David Edward, ed. The Blackwell Companion to the New Testament. Malden: Wiley-Blackwell, 2010. Print. Blackwell Companions to Religion.

25. Translated Book After the title, present the translator’s name in normal order, preceded by Trans. (for Translated by).

Torre, Domingo de la, Romin Teratol, and Antzelmo Peres. Travelers to the Other World: A Maya View of North America. Trans. Robert M. Laughlin. Ed. Carol Karasik. Albuquerque: U of New Mexico P, 2010. Print.

26. Book in a Language Other Than English You may give a translation of the book’s title in brackets.

Moine, Fabienne. Poésie et identité féminines en Angleterre: le genre en jeu, 1830–1900 [Poetry and Female Identity in England: Genre/Gender at Play]. Paris: Harmattan, 2010. Print.

27. Entry in a Reference Work If the work is well known, you do not need to include the publisher or place of publication. If entries are listed alphabetically, you do not need to include a page number.

“Desdemona.” Women in Shakespeare: A Dictionary. Ed. Alison Findlay. New York: Continuum, 2010. Print.

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PRINT PERIODICALS

28. Journal Article List the author’s name, the article title (in quotation marks), and the journal title (italicized), followed by the volume number, issue number, year, page number(s), and medium.

Mooney, William. “Sex, Booze, and the Code: Four Versions of the Maltese Falcon.” Literature-Film Quarterly 39.1 (2011): 54–72. Print.

29. Magazine Article List the author’s name, the article title (in quotation marks), and the magazine title (italicized), followed by the issue date, page number(s), and medium.

Seabrook, John. “Crush Point.” New Yorker 7 Feb. 2011: 32–38. Print.

30. Newspaper Article List the author’s name, the article title (in quotation marks), and the newspaper name (italicized), followed by the issue date, page number(s) (which might include a section letter), and medium. If the newspaper appears in more than one edition, add a comma after the date and cite the edition (for example, late ed.). If sections are numbered, add a comma after the date, the word sec., and the section number.

Robertson, Campbell. “Beyond the Oil Spill, the Tragedy of an Ailing Gulf.” New York Times 21 Apr. 2011: A17. Print.

31. Unsigned Article If the author of an article is not indicated, begin with the title. Alphabetize the work by title, ignoring any initial article.

“How Much Is Enough?” Economist 26 Feb. 2011: 5. Print.

32. Article That Skips Pages Give the page on which the article starts, followed by a plus sign (+) and a period.

Kennicott, Philip. “Out-Vermeering Vermeer.” Washington Post 10 Apr. 2011: E1+. Print.

33. Review For a book or film review, give the author of the review and the title of the review (in quotation marks), followed by the words Rev. of and the title of the work reviewed (italicized). Insert a comma and the word by, then give the name of the author of the work reviewed. (Instead of by, you might use ed., trans., or dir., depending on the work.) End with the publication information for the periodical in which the review was published.

Wynne, Clive. “Our Conflicted Relationship with Animals.” Rev. of Some We Love, Some We Hate, Some We Eat, by Hal Herzog. Nature 467.7313 (2010): 275–76. Print.

ELECTRONIC SOURCES

34. Entire Website If you are citing an entire website, begin with the name of the author or editor (if given) and the title of the site (italicized). Then give the name of the sponsoring institution or organization (or N.p.), the date of publication or most recent update (or n.d.), the medium, and your access date. Only if necessary, add the URL in angle brackets at the end, followed by a period.

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Poets.org. Academy of American Poets, n.d. Web. 12 Jan. 2014.

35. Short Work from a Website If you are citing a portion of a website, begin with the author, the title of the material (in quotation marks), and the title of the site (italicized). Then include the site’s sponsor, the date of publication, the medium, and your access date.

Ferenstein, Greg. “How Mobile Technology Is a Game Changer for Developing Africa.” Mashable. Mashable, 19 July 2010. Web. 14 Jan. 2011.

36. Online Book Begin with the author’s name and the title of the work, along with publication information about the print source. If the book has not been published in print, include the online publication date and publisher. Include the medium. End with your access date.

Martín-Palma, Raúl J., and Akhlesh Lakhtakia. Nanotechnology: A Crash Course. Bellingham: SPIE, 2010. SPIE Digital Library. Web. 16 Jan. 2011.

37. Article in an Online Periodical Begin with the author’s name and include the title of the document, the name of the periodical, and the date of publication. If the periodical is a scholarly journal, include relevant identifying numbers, such as volume, issue, and page numbers (or n. pag. if there are no page numbers). For abstracts of articles, include the word Abstract, followed by a period, after the page number(s). End with the medium and your access date.

Maas, Korey D. “Natural Law, Lutheranism, and the Public Good.” Lutheran Witness 130.3 (2011): n. pag. Web. 14 Jan. 2011.

For magazine and newspaper articles found online, give the author, the title of the article (in quotation marks), the title of the magazine or newspaper (italicized), the sponsor or publisher of the site (use N.p. if there is none), the date of publication, the medium, and your date of access.

Melia, Mike. “Atlantic Garbage Patch: Pacific Gyre Is Not Alone.” Huffington Post. HuffingtonPost.com, 15 Apr. 2010. Web. 13 Feb. 2011.

38. Article from a Database or Subscription Service After giving the print article information, give the name of the database (italicized), the medium (Web), and your access date.

Kunnan, Anthony J. “Publishing in the Era of Online Technologies.” Modern Language Journal 94.4 (2010): 643–45. Academic OneFile. Web. 12 Feb. 2011.

39. Dissertation The title appears in quotation marks if the dissertation is unpublished or in italics if it is published.

Zimmer, Kenyon. The Whole World Is Our Country: Immigration and Anarchism in the United States, 1885–1940. Diss. Pittsburgh: U of Pittsburgh, 2010. Print.

40. CD-ROM Treat material on a CD-ROM as you would if it were in print form. That is, if the source is an article in a database, include CD-ROM after the page numbers, followed by the database title, the vendor, and the publication date of the database. If it is a book, treat it as a book, with CD-ROM as the medium.

481

Greek-Cypriot Maritime Guide 2011. Alimos, Greece: Marine Information Services, 2011. CD-ROM.

41. Email Message Include the author’s name, the subject line (if any) in quotation marks, and then the words Message to followed by the name of the recipient (if you were the recipient, use the phrase the author). End with the date the email was sent and the medium (E-mail).

Lange, Frauke. “Data for Genealogical Project.” Message to the author. 26 Dec. 2016. E-mail.

42. Online Posting List the author’s name, the subject line (if any) in quotation marks, the name of the discussion group or newsgroup in italics, the sponsor, the posting date, the medium (Web), and your access date. If there is no subject line, use the expression Online posting (not in quotation marks) in its place.

Swallow, Bill. “Re: New Doc Group: FrameMaker or Flare?” TECHWR-L. RayComm, 5 Jan. 2010. Web. 10 Feb. 2011.

43. Other Online Sources Follow the MLA guidelines already discussed, adapting them as appropriate to the electronic medium. The following examples are for a podcast and a blog, respectively. For a podcast, the medium might be Web, MP3 file, MPEG-4 file, Video file, and so on. If the blog doesn’t have a title (in quotation marks), use the expression Web log entry or Web log comment in its place, not in quotation marks.

“Hubble Marks 20 Years of Discovery.” NASACast Video. NASA, 23 Apr. 2010. Web. 15 Jan. 2011.

Raymo, Chet. “Divine Particulars.” Science Musings Blog. Chet Raymo, 21 Jan. 2011. Web. 15 Feb. 2011.

OTHER SOURCES

44. Government Document For a government publication, begin with the name of the country and the government agency. Follow with the document title. Then give the name of the author (if known), preceded by the word By. Follow with the report number or identifying number (if any), the location and name of the publisher, the date, and the medium.

United States. National Commission on the Causes of the Financial and Economic Crisis. The Financial Crisis Inquiry Report: Final Report of the National Commission on the Causes of the Financial and Economic Crisis in the United States. Washington: GPO, 2011. Print.

For an online source, follow the report number with the publisher or sponsor, the date of publication, the medium, and your date of access.

482

United States. Dept. of the Interior. A Refined Characterization of the Alluvial Geology of Yucca Flat and Its Effect on Bulk Hydraulic Conductivity. By G. A. Phelps, A. Boucher, and K. J. Halford. Open-File Report 2010-1307. US Geological Survey, 2011. Web. 12 Feb. 2011.

45. Article from Conference Proceedings List the author’s name, the article title, the proceedings title, and the editor’s name, followed by the publication information and the medium.

Glicksman, Robert. “Climate Change Adaptation and the Federal Lands.” The Past, Present, and Future of Our Public Lands: Celebrating the 40th Anniversary of the Public Land Law Review Commission’s Report. Ed. Gary C. Bryner. Boulder: Natural Resources Law Center, 2010. Print.

46. Pamphlet Cite a pamphlet as you would a book.

US Geological Survey. Facing Tomorrow’s Challenges: An Overview. Denver: Habitat, 2008. Print.

47. Report Cite a report as you would a book.

Liebreich, Michael, et al. Green Investing 2010: Policy Mechanisms to Bridge the Financing Gap. Geneva: World Economic Forum, 2010. Print.

48. Interview For a published interview, begin with the name of the person interviewed. If the interview has a title, enclose it in quotation marks. Insert the words Interview by and give the interviewer’s name, if relevant, followed by a period and the information on the work in which the interview was published.

Walcott, Derek. “Purple Prose.” Interview by Alexander Newbauer. Harper’s Magazine Feb. 2010: 24–26. Print.

If you conducted the interview yourself, give the interviewee’s name, the words Personal interview, and the date.

Youngblood, Adelaide. Personal interview. 5 Jan. 2011.

49. Letter or Memo If the letter or memo was addressed to you, give the writer’s name, followed by the words Letter [or Memo] to the author and the date it was written. End with the medium (e.g., MS for manuscript or TS for typescript).

Jakobiak, Ursula. Letter to the author. 27 Oct. 2016. MS.

If the letter or memo was addressed to someone other than you, give the recipient’s name in place of the words the author.

50. Lecture or Speech Give the speaker’s name, the title of the lecture or speech (if known), the event and sponsoring organization (if applicable), and the place and date. End with the medium (such as Lecture or Keynote Speech).

Wang, Samuel. “Neuroscience and Everyday Life.” Freshman Assembly, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ. 12 Sept. 2010. Lecture.

483

51. Map or Chart Give the author (if known), the title (in quotation marks), the word Map or Chart, the publication information, and the medium. For an online source, follow the word Map or Chart with the name of the website (italicized), the name of the site’s sponsor or publisher, the date of publication, the medium, and the date of access.

“Aftershock Map Tohoku Earthquake.” Map. Earthquake Hazards Program. US Geological Survey, 11 Mar. 2011. Web. 14 Apr. 2016.

52. Photograph or Work of Art Give the name of the artist; the title of the artwork, italicized; the date of composition; the medium of composition; and the institution and city in which the artwork can be found. For artworks found online, omit the medium of composition and include the sponsor and the title of the website on which you found the work, the medium, and your date of access.

Smedley, W. T. On the Beach at Narragansett Pier. 1900. Prints and Photographs Div., Lib. of Cong. Cabinet of American Illustration. Web. 15 Feb. 2016.

53. Legal Source For a legal case, give the name of the first plaintiff and first defendant, the law report number, the name of the court, the year of the decision, publication information, the medium, and the date of access (if on the web).

Natl. Assn. of Home Builders v. Defenders of Wildlife. No. 06-340. Supreme Court of the US. 2007. Supreme Court of the United States. Web. 12 Feb. 2016.

For a legislative act, give the name of the act, the Public Law number, the Statutes at Large volume and page numbers, the date the law was enacted, the medium, and the date of access.

Protect America Act of 2007. Pub. L. 110-55. 5 Stat. 121–552. 5 Aug. 2007. Web. 15 Feb. 2016.

54. Radio or Television Program Give the title of the episode or segment, if applicable, and the title of the program. Include relevant information about the host, writer, director, or performers. Then give the network, call letters and city for the local station (if any), the broadcast date, and the medium. If you accessed the program on the web, instead of the original medium, give the title of the website, the medium (Web), and your date of access.

“Aircraft Safety.” Nightline. Narr. Cynthia McFadden. ABC. WCVB, Boston, 4 Apr. 2011. Television.

“Petty Tyrant.” This American Life. Host Ira Glass. Natl. Public Radio. WBEZ, Chicago, 12 Nov. 2010. Radio.

55. Film, Video, or DVD Give the title of the film and the name of the director. You may also give the names of major performers (Perf.) or the narrator (Narr.). Give the distributor, the year of the original release, and the medium (Film, DVD, or Videocassette).

484

The King’s Speech. Dir. Tom Hooper. Perf. Colin Firth, Geoffrey Rush, and Helena Bonham Carter. The Weinstein Co., 2010. Film.

56. Advertisement Include the name of the product, organization, or service being advertised; the word Advertisement; and the publication information. If you accessed the advertisement online, give your access date after the medium (Web).

NeutronicEar. Advertisement. Smithsonian Mar. 2011: 89. Print.

Following is a sample list of works cited using the MLA citation system.

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This part of the Appendix contains advice on editing your documents for grammar, punctuation, and mechanics. If your organization or professional field has a style guide with different recommendations about grammar and usage, you should of course follow those guidelines.

Your instructor might use the following abbreviations to refer you to specific topics in the text and in this part of the Appendix.

486

The comma is the most frequently used punctuation mark, as well as the one about whose usage writers most often disagree. Examples of common misuses of the comma accompany the following guidelines. The section concludes with advice about editing for unnecessary commas.

Writers often introduce errors by using inappropriate commas. Do not insert commas in the following situations:

489

Semicolons are used in the following instances:

490

Here the semicolon acts as a “supercomma,” grouping each name with the correct title.

Sometimes writers incorrectly use a semicolon when a colon is called for:

Colons are used in the following instances:

Writers sometimes incorrectly use a colon to separate a verb from its complement:

491

Periods are used in the following instances:

The exclamation point is used at the end of a sentence that expresses strong emotion, such as surprise.

The nuclear plant, which was originally expected to cost $1.6 billion, eventually cost more than $8 billion!

In technical documents, which require objectivity and a calm, understated tone, exclamation points are rarely used.

The question mark is used at the end of a sentence that asks a direct question.

What did the commission say about effluents?

NOTE: When a question mark is used within quotation marks, no other end punctuation is required.

She asked, “What did the commission say about effluents?”

Do not use a question mark at the end of a sentence that asks an indirect question.

He wanted to know whether the procedure had been approved for use.

To make a dash, use two uninterrupted hyphens (—). Do not add a space before or after the dash. Some word-processing programs turn two hyphens into a dash, but with others, you have to use a special combination of keys to make a dash; there is no dash key on the keyboard.

Dashes are used in the following instances:

492

Sometimes writers incorrectly use a dash as a substitute for other punctuation marks:

Parentheses are used in the following instances:

493

Sometimes writers incorrectly use parentheses instead of brackets to enclose their insertion within a quotation:

Apostrophes are used in the following instances:

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NOTE: For plurals of numbers and abbreviations, some style guides omit the apostrophe: 9s, JCLs. Because usage varies considerably, check with your organization.

Writers sometimes incorrectly use the contraction it’s in place of the possessive pronoun its.

Quotation marks are used in the following instances:

Ellipses (three spaced periods) indicate the omission of material from a direct quotation. (Word processors have a special character for ellipses.)

496

Insert an ellipsis after a period if you are omitting entire sentences that follow:

Larkin refers to the project as “an attempt . . . to clarify the issue of compulsory arbitration. . . . We do not foresee an end to the legal wrangling . . . but perhaps the report can serve as a definition of the areas of contention.”

The writer has omitted words from the source after attempt and after wrangling. After arbitration, the writer has inserted an ellipsis after a period to indicate that a sentence has been omitted.

NOTE: If the author’s original statement has ellipses, MLA style recommends that you insert brackets around an ellipsis that you introduce in a quotation.

Sexton thinks “reuse adoption offers . . . the promise to improve business [ . . . ] worldwide.”

Square brackets are used in the following instances:

Although italics are generally preferred, you may use underlining in place of italics. Whichever method you choose, be consistent throughout your document. Italics (or underlining) are used in the following instances:

Some style guides advocate using angle brackets around URLs in print documents to set them off from the text.

Our survey included a close look at three online news sites: the New York Times <www.nytimes.com>, the Washington Post <www.washingtonpost.com>, and CNN <www.cnn.com>.

You might want to check with your instructor or organization before following this recommendation.

Hyphens are used in the following instances:

Ways of handling numbers vary considerably. Therefore, in choosing between words and numerals, consult your organization’s style guide. Many organizations observe the following guidelines:

Abbreviations save time and space, but you should use them carefully because your readers might not understand them. Many companies and professional organizations provide lists of approved abbreviations.

501

Analyze your audience to determine whether and how to abbreviate. If your readers include a general audience unfamiliar with your field, either write out the technical terms or attach a list of abbreviations. If you are new to an organization or are publishing in a field for the first time, find out which abbreviations are commonly used. If for any reason you are unsure about a term, write it out.

The following are general guidelines about abbreviations:

502

For the most part, the conventions of capitalization in general writing apply in technical communication:

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Proofreading Symbols and Their Meanings