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Hearing

audition the sense or act of hearing.

Like our other senses, our audition, or hearing, helps us adapt and survive. Hearing people share information invisibly—by shooting unseen air waves across space. Hearing loss is therefore an invisible disability. To not catch someone’s name, to not grasp what someone is asking, and to miss the hilarious joke is to be deprived of what others know, and sometimes to feel excluded. (As a person with hearing loss, I [DM] know the feeling.)

Most of us, however, can hear a wide range of sounds, and the ones we hear best are those in the range of the human voice. With normal hearing, we are remarkably sensitive to faint sounds, such as a child’s whimper. (If our ears were only slightly more sensitive, we would hear a constant hiss from the movement of air molecules.) We are also remarkably attuned to sound variations. Among thousands of possible human voices, we easily recognize an unseen friend’s, from the moment she says “Hi.” Moreover, hearing is fast. “It might take you a full second to notice something out of the corner of your eye, turn your head toward it, recognize it, and respond to it,” notes auditory neuroscientist Seth Horowitz (2012). “The same reaction to a new or sudden sound happens at least 10 times as fast.” A fraction of a second after such events stimulate the ear’s receptors, millions of neurons have simultaneously coordinated in extracting the essential features, comparing them with past experience, and identifying the stimulus (Freeman, 1991). For hearing as for our other senses, we wonder: How do we do it?

The Stimulus Input: Sound Waves

6-16 What are the characteristics of air pressure waves that we hear as sound?

Draw a bow across a violin, and you will unleash the energy of sound waves. Jostling molecules of air, each bumping into the next, create waves of compressed and expanded air, like the ripples on a pond circling out from a tossed stone. As we swim in our ocean of moving air molecules, our ears detect these brief air pressure changes.

frequency the number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time (for example, per second).

pitch a tone’s experienced highness or lowness; depends on frequency.

Like light waves, sound waves vary in shape (FIGURE 6.35). The height, or amplitude, of sound waves determines their loudness. Their length, or frequency, determines the pitch we experience. Long waves have low frequency—and low pitch. Short waves have high frequency—and high pitch. Sound waves produced by a violin are much shorter and faster than those produced by a cello or a bass guitar.

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The sounds of music A violin’s short, fast waves create a high pitch. The longer, slower waves of a cello or bass create a lower pitch. Differences in the waves’ height, or amplitude, also create differing degrees of loudness.
sbarabu/Shutterstock / Zdorov Kirill Vladimirovich/Shutterstock
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Figure 6.39: FIGURE 6.35 The physical properties of waves (a) Waves vary in wavelength (the distance between successive peaks). Frequency, the number of complete wavelengths that can pass a point in a given time, depends on the wavelength. The shorter the wavelength, the higher the frequency. Wavelength determines the pitch of sound. (b) Waves also vary in amplitude (the height from peak to trough). Wave amplitude influences sound intensity.

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We measure sounds in decibels, with zero decibels representing the absolute threshold for hearing. Every 10 decibels correspond to a tenfold increase in sound intensity. Thus, normal conversation (60 decibels) is 10,000 times more intense than a 20-decibel whisper. And a temporarily tolerable 100-decibel passing subway train is 10 billion times more intense than the faintest detectable sound.

The Ear

6-17 How does the ear transform sound energy into neural messages?

middle ear the chamber between the eardrum and cochlea containing three tiny bones (hammer, anvil, and stirrup) that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea’s oval window.

The intricate process that transforms vibrating air into nerve impulses, which our brain decodes as sounds, begins when sound waves enter the outer ear. An elaborate mechanical chain reaction begins as the visible outer ear channels the waves through the auditory canal to the eardrum, a tight membrane, causing it to vibrate (FIGURE 6.36). In the middle ear, a piston made of three tiny bones (the hammer, anvil, and stirrup) picks up the vibrations and transmits them to the cochlea, a snail-shaped tube in the inner ear. The incoming vibrations cause the cochlea’s membrane (the oval window) to vibrate, jostling the fluid that fills the tube. This motion causes ripples in the basilar membrane, bending the hair cells lining its surface, not unlike the wind bending a wheat field. Hair cell movement triggers impulses in the adjacent nerve cells. Axons of those cells converge to form the auditory nerve, which sends neural messages (via the thalamus) to the auditory cortex in the brain’s temporal lobe. From vibrating air to moving piston to fluid waves to electrical impulses to the brain: Voila! We hear.

cochlea [KOHK-lee-uh] a coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear; sound waves traveling through the cochlear fluid trigger nerve impulses.

inner ear the innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs.

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Figure 6.40: FIGURE 6.36 Hear here: How we transform sound waves into nerve impulses that our brain interprets (a) The outer ear funnels sound waves to the eardrum. The bones of the middle ear (hammer, anvil, and stirrup) amplify and relay the eardrum’s vibrations through the oval window into the fluid-filled cochlea. (b) As shown in this detail of the middle and inner ear, the resulting pressure changes in the cochlear fluid cause the basilar membrane to ripple, bending the hair cells on its surface. Hair cell movements trigger impulses at the base of the nerve cells, whose fibers converge to form the auditory nerve. That nerve sends neural messages to the thalamus and on to the auditory cortex.

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Perhaps the most intriguing part of the hearing process is the hair cells—“quivering bundles that let us hear” thanks to their “extreme sensitivity and extreme speed” (Goldberg, 2007). A cochlea has 16,000 of them, which sounds like a lot until we compare that with an eye’s 130 million or so photoreceptors. But consider their responsiveness. Deflect the tiny bundles of cilia on the tip of a hair cell by the width of an atom—the equivalent of displacing the top of the Eiffel Tower by half an inch—and the alert hair cell, thanks to a special protein at its tip, triggers a neural response (Corey et al., 2004).

sensorineural hearing loss the most common form of hearing loss, also called nerve deafness; caused by damage to the cochlea’s receptor cells or to the auditory nerves.

conduction hearing loss less common form of hearing loss, caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea.

Across the world, 360 million people are challenged by hearing loss (WHO, 2012). Damage to the cochlea’s hair cell receptors or their associated nerves can cause sensorineural hearing loss (or nerve deafness). Occasionally, disease damages these receptors, but more often the culprits are biological changes linked with heredity, aging, and prolonged exposure to ear-splitting noise or music. Sensorineural hearing loss is more common than conduction hearing loss, which is caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea.

The cochlea’s hair cells have been likened to carpet fibers. Walk around on them and they will spring back. But leave a heavy piece of furniture on them and they may never rebound. As a general rule, if we cannot talk over a noise, it is potentially harmful, especially if prolonged and repeated (Roesser, 1998). Such experiences are common when sound exceeds 100 decibels, as might occur when in a frenzied sports arena, playing loud music through headphones, or listening to bagpipes (FIGURE 6.37). Ringing of the ears after exposure to loud sounds indicates that we have been bad to our unhappy hair cells. One study of teen rock concert attendees found that after three hours of sound averaging 99 decibels, 54 percent reported not hearing as well, and 1 in 4 had ringing in their ears. As pain alerts us to possible bodily harm, ringing of the ears alerts us to possible hearing damage. It is hearing’s equivalent of bleeding.

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FIGURE 6.37 The intensity of some common sounds One study of 3 million Germans found professional musicians having almost four times the average rate of noise-induced hearing loss (Schink et al., 2014).
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Figure 6.41: FIGURE 6.38 Hardware for hearing Cochlear implants work by translating sounds into electrical signals that are transmitted to the cochlea and, via the auditory nerve, on to the brain.

The rate of teen hearing loss, now 1 in 5, has risen by a third since the early 1990s (Shargorodsky et al., 2010). Teen boys more than teen girls or adults blast themselves with loud volumes for long periods (Zogby, 2006). Males’ greater noise exposure may help explain why men’s hearing tends to be less acute than women’s. But regardless of gender, those who spend many hours in a loud nightclub, behind a power mower, or above a jackhammer should wear earplugs. “Condoms or, safer yet, abstinence,” say sex educators. “Earplugs or walk away,” say hearing educators.

cochlear implant a device for converting sounds into electrical signals and stimulating the auditory nerve through electrodes threaded into the cochlea.

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For now, the only way to restore hearing for people with nerve deafness is a sort of bionic ear—a cochlear implant, which 50,000 people a year, including some 30,000 children, now receive (Hochmair, 2013). This electronic device translates sounds into electrical signals that, wired into the cochlea’s nerves, convey information about sound to the brain (FIGURE 6.38). Cochlear implants in deaf kittens and human infants have seemed to trigger an “awakening” of the pertinent brain area (Klinke et al., 1999; Sireteanu, 1999). These devices can help children become proficient in oral communication (especially if they receive them as preschoolers or even before age 1) (Dettman et al., 2007; Schorr et al., 2005). Cochlear implants also help restore hearing for most adults, but only if their brain learned to process sound during childhood.

RETRIEVE IT

Question

bHS8tzTSVhfu8lFD4eW5BV7CFnnhm+y6w9JY/UBs2yr6FnUE0BQc++XE56GmZwVwoC4J3l9dNZHu4/UnZTjUNHKKdnUT8JTyGKgty+J+hm6AjO2ZZdQ1XaP18+qIB9yF4I7kZ/vkLJ/8Ceb6ESq0Crv2raxDyIfaRJxl5WOoG/OJ2dea
ANSWER: loudness

Question

/2gugyCmWc1pfj/p0WQiTntAyNBcRXx+pLLzds+hoQJ3n86xoW+w0QGDFMS/PLwpBFjXNzo8DMh4N4q8NYBSrIi5husoXiGKuEDwy54fQ33sTP/DzNsFWlhGiGY+jRZs1g53LJhE4POvruMP5GbSJ40JHpkYJbJS27KQc7CPIj46AyAbYQZAy5dYkaEPaltpCvTDZeTXG7Yl3AFQ+JkvFS46BDdFDU92xhEhig==
ANSWERS: lower; lower

Perceiving Loudness, Pitch, and Location

6-18 How do we detect loudness, discriminate pitch, and locate sounds?

RESPONDING TO LOUD AND SOFT SOUNDS How do we detect loudness? If you guessed that it’s related to the intensity of a hair cell’s response, you’d be wrong. Rather, a soft, pure tone activates only the few hair cells attuned to its frequency. Given louder sounds, neighboring hair cells also respond. Thus, your brain interprets loudness from the number of activated hair cells.

If a hair cell loses sensitivity to soft sounds, it may still respond to loud sounds. This helps explain another surprise: Really loud sounds may seem loud to people with or without normal hearing. As a person with hearing loss, I [DM] used to wonder what really loud music must sound like to people with normal hearing. Now I realize it sounds much the same; where we differ is in our perception of soft sounds.

HEARING DIFFERENT PITCHES How do we know whether a sound is the high-frequency, high-pitched chirp of a bird or the low-frequency, low-pitched roar of a truck? Current thinking on how we discriminate pitch combines two theories.

place theory in hearing, the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea’s membrane is stimulated.

frequency theory in hearing, the theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch. (Also called temporal theory.)

image For an interactive review of how we perceive sound, visit LaunchPad’s PsychSim 6: The Auditory System. For an animated explanation, visit LaunchPad’s Concept Practice: The Auditory Pathway.

So, here is our current thinking on how we discriminate pitch:

  1. Place theory best explains how we sense high pitches.

  2. Frequency theory, extended by the volley principle, best explains how we sense low pitches.

  3. Some combination of place and frequency theories seems to handle the pitches in the intermediate range.

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Question

1a0Bkn+qNWqISpkAsUem8bXXFbo5NcwOjPAC+4fkGiDHFpRc5OXh7OKuuw+8hAFUMPNhlUt2QzHEHCX64r2/ywcozC4ETM7Q56GwtguHZ577XaTO4efjjJLffNh2gxPnfQv5HJ0B5oWSPUrCFQq4K4BrUZnTFQUeobjIZppwPa6ZLRKudsgYPaoxyWRQTgBWKumD+t+QxPv4GWTlADj0/MAsrNF54/q72Fi5BKlGrWGg12xXaNImWmlJXToMsaJTpSYa1RT5gWqr5vGvn0VZIWOKNuk5R1FBXpGCu0lq9lqWD6KmZF/THRtJ80NHHtPquel6ZXtkYlGBOgNvc6kpcw9DXsGI7Vo1FGCBTwXg/mIdKfgWI9npQOYDN50=
ANSWERS: place theory; frequency theory

LOCATING SOUNDS Why don’t we have one big ear—perhaps above our one nose? “The better to hear you with,” the wolf said to Red Riding Hood. Thanks to the placement of our two ears, we enjoy stereophonic (“three-dimensional”) hearing. Two ears are better than one for at least two reasons. If a car to your right honks, your right ear will receive a more intense sound, and it will receive the sound slightly sooner than your left ear (FIGURE 6.39). Because sound travels 761 miles per hour and our ears are but 6 inches apart, the intensity difference and the time lag are extremely small. A just noticeable difference in the direction of two sound sources corresponds to a time difference of just 0.000027 second! Lucky for us, our supersensitive auditory system can detect such minute differences (Brown & Deffenbacher, 1979; Middlebrooks & Green, 1991).

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Figure 6.42: FIGURE 6.39 How we locate sounds Sound waves strike one ear sooner and more intensely than the other. From this information, our nimble brain can compute the sound’s location. As you might therefore expect, people who lose all hearing in one ear often have difficulty locating sounds.

The Other Senses

Sharks and dogs rely on their outstanding sense of smell, aided by large brain areas devoted to this system. Our human brain gives seeing and hearing priority in the allocation of cortical tissue. But extraordinary happenings also occur within our other senses. Without our senses of touch, taste, smell, and body position and movement, we humans would be seriously handicapped, and our capacities for enjoying the world would be greatly diminished.

Touch

6-19 How do we sense touch?

Touch is vital. Right from the start, touch aids our development. Infant rats deprived of their mother’s grooming produce less growth hormone and have a lower metabolic rate—a good way to keep alive until the mother returns, but a reaction that stunts growth if prolonged. Infant monkeys allowed to see, hear, and smell—but not touch—their mother become desperately unhappy; those separated by a screen with holes that allow touching are much less miserable. Premature human babies gain weight faster and go home sooner if they are stimulated by hand massage (Field et al., 2006). As adults, we still yearn to touch—to kiss, to stroke, to snuggle. This sort of touch soothes and protects. In one experiment, women felt less threatened by physical pain when holding their husband’s hand (Coan et al., 2006). Touch also helps communicate. In experiments, strangers separated by a curtain, using their hands to touch only the other’s forearms, have been able to communicate anger, fear, disgust, love, gratitude, and sympathy at levels well above chance (Hertenstein et al., 2006).

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The precious sense of touch As William James wrote in his Principles of Psychology (1890), “Touch is both the alpha and omega of affection.”
© Jose Luis Pelaez, Inc./Blend Images/Corbis

Humorist Dave Barry was perhaps right to jest that your skin “keeps people from seeing the inside of your body, which is repulsive, and it prevents your organs from falling onto the ground.” But skin does much more. Touching various spots on the skin with a soft hair, a warm or cool wire, and the point of a pin reveals that some spots are especially sensitive to pressure, others to warmth, others to cold, still others to pain. Our “sense of touch” is actually a mix of these four basic and distinct skin senses, and our other skin sensations are variations of pressure, warmth, cold, and pain. Some examples:

Touch sensations involve more than tactile stimulation, however. A self-administered tickle produces less somatosensory cortex activation than does the same tickle from something or someone else (Blakemore et al., 1998). Likewise, a sensual leg caress evokes a different somatosensory cortex response when a heterosexual man believes it comes from an attractive woman rather than a man (Gazzola et al., 2012). Our responses to tickles and caresses reveal how quickly cognition influences our brain’s sensory response.

Pain

6-20 What biological, psychological, and social-cultural influences affect our experience of pain? How do placebos, distraction, and hypnosis help control pain?

Be thankful for occasional pain. Pain is your body’s way of telling you something has gone wrong. By drawing your attention to a burn, a break, or a sprain, pain orders you to change your behavior—“Stay off that turned ankle!” The rare people born without the ability to feel pain may experience severe injury or even death before early adulthood. Without the discomfort that makes us occasionally shift position, their joints fail from excess strain. Without the warnings of pain, the effects of unchecked infections and injuries accumulate (Neese, 1991).

More numerous are those who live with chronic pain, which is rather like an alarm that won’t shut off. The suffering of those with persistent or recurring backaches, arthritis, headaches, and cancer-related pain, prompts two questions: What is pain? How might we control it?

UNDERSTANDING PAIN Our pain experiences vary widely. Women are more sensitive to pain than men are (their senses of hearing and smell also tend to be more sensitive) (Ruau et al., 2012; Wickelgren, 2009). Our individual pain sensitivity varies, too, depending on genes, physiology, experience, attention, and surrounding culture (Gatchel et al., 2007; Reimann et al., 2010). Thus, our experience of pain reflects both bottom-up sensations and top-down cognition.

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BIOLOGICAL INFLUENCES There is no one type of stimulus that triggers pain (as light triggers vision). Instead, there are different nociceptors—sensory receptors in our skin, muscles, and organs that detect harmful temperatures, pressure, or chemicals and send pain signals (FIGURE 6.40).

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Figure 6.43: FIGURE 6.40 The pain circuit Sensory receptors (nociceptors) respond to potentially damaging stimuli by sending an impulse to the spinal cord, which passes the message to the brain, which interprets the signal as pain.

gate-control theory the theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological “gate” that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain. The “gate” is opened by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers and is closed by activity in larger fibers or by information coming from the brain.

Although no theory of pain explains all available findings, psychologist Ronald Melzack and biologist Patrick Wall’s (1965, 1983; Melzack & Katz, 2013) classic gate-control theory provides a useful model. The spinal cord contains small nerve fibers that conduct most pain signals, and larger fibers that conduct most other sensory signals. Melzack and Wall theorized that the spinal cord contains a neurological “gate.” When tissue is injured, the small fibers activate and open the gate, and you feel pain. Large-fiber activity closes the gate, blocking pain signals and preventing them from reaching the brain. Thus, one way to treat chronic pain is to stimulate (by massage, electric stimulation, or acupuncture) “gate-closing” activity in the large neural fibers (Wall, 2000).

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“Pain is a gift.” So said a doctor studying Ashlyn Blocker, who has a rare genetic mutation that prevents her from feeling pain. At birth, she didn’t cry. As a child, she ran around for two days on a broken ankle. She has put her hands on a hot machine and burned the flesh off. And she has reached into boiling water to retrieve a dropped spoon. “Everyone in my class asks me about it, and I say, ‘I can feel pressure, but I can’t feel pain.’ Pain! I cannot feel it!”
Jeff Riedel/Contour/Getty Images

But pain is not merely a physical phenomenon of injured nerves sending impulses to a definable brain area—like pulling on a rope to ring a bell. The brain also creates pain, as it does in people’s experiences of phantom limb sensations after a limb has been amputated. Their brain may misinterpret the spontaneous central nervous system (CNS) activity that occurs in the absence of normal sensory input: As the dreamer may see with eyes closed, so 7 in 10 such people may feel pain or movement in nonexistent limbs (Melzack, 1992, 2005). (Some may also try to step off a bed onto a phantom leg or to lift a cup with a phantom hand.) Even those born without a limb sometimes perceive sensations from the absent arm or leg. The brain, Melzack (1998) has surmised, comes prepared to anticipate “that it will be getting information from a body that has limbs.”

Phantoms may haunt other senses too, as the brain, responding to the absence of sensory signals, amplifies irrelevant neural activity. People with hearing loss often experience the sound of silence: tinnitus, the phantom sound of ringing in the ears. Those who lose vision to glaucoma, cataracts, diabetes, or macular degeneration may experience phantom sights—nonthreatening hallucinations (Ramachandran & Blakeslee, 1998). Others who have nerve damage in the systems for tasting and smelling have experienced phantom tastes or smells, such as ice water that seems sickeningly sweet, or fresh air that reeks of rotten food (Goode, 1999). The point to remember: We feel, see, hear, taste, and smell with our brain, which can sense even without functioning senses.

PSYCHOLOGICAL INFLUENCES One powerful influence on our perception of pain is the attention we focus on it. Athletes, focused on winning, may play through the pain. Halfway through his lap of the 2012 Olympics 1600-meter relay, Manteo Mitchell broke one of his leg bones—and kept running.

We also seem to edit our memories of pain, which often differ from the pain we actually experienced. In experiments, and after medical procedures, people overlook a pain’s duration. Their memory snapshots instead record two factors: their pain’s peak moment (which can lead them to recall variable pain, with peaks, as worse [Stone et al., 2005]), and how much pain they felt at the end. In one experiment, researchers asked people to immerse one hand in painfully cold water for 60 seconds, and then the other hand in the same painfully cold water for 60 seconds followed by a slightly less painful 30 seconds more (Kahneman et al., 1993). Which experience would you expect to recall as most painful?

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Curiously, when asked which trial they would prefer to repeat, most preferred the 90-second trial, with more net pain—but less pain at the end. Physicians have used this principle with patients undergoing colon exams—lengthening the discomfort by a minute, but lessening its intensity (Kahneman, 1999). Although the extended milder discomfort added to their net pain experience, patients experiencing this taper-down treatment later recalled the exam as less painful than did those whose pain ended abruptly. Likewise, after childbirth, women recall the total amount of pain in terms of the average of the peak and end pain, rather than the duration (Chajut, et al., 2014). (Imagine that, at the end of a painful root canal, the oral surgeon asks if you’d like to go home or to have a few more minutes of milder discomfort. If you want to remember less pain, there’s a case to be made for prolonging your hurt.)

The end of an experience can color our memory of pleasures, too. In one simple experiment, some people, on receiving a fifth and last piece of chocolate, were told it was their “next” one. Others, told it was their “last” piece, liked it better and also rated the whole experiment as being more enjoyable (O’Brien & Ellsworth, 2012). Endings matter.

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Distracted from the pain After a tackle in the first half of a competitive game, BK Häcken soccer player Mohammed Ali Khan (in white) said he “had a bit of pain” but thought it was “just a bruise.” With his attention focused on the game, he played on. In the second half he was surprised to learn from an attending doctor that his leg was broken.
Reinhold Matay/AP Photo

SOCIAL-CULTURAL INFLUENCES Our perception of pain varies with our social situation and our cultural traditions. We tend to perceive more pain when others seem to be experiencing pain (Symbaluk et al., 1997). This may help explain other apparent social aspects of pain, as when pockets of Australian keyboard operators during the mid-1980s suffered outbreaks of severe pain while typing or performing other repetitive work—without any discernible physical abnormalities (Gawande, 1998). Sometimes the pain in sprain is mainly in the brain—literally. When people felt empathy for another’s pain, their own brain activity partly mirrored the activity of the actual brain in pain (Singer et al., 2004).

Thus, our perception of pain is a biopsychosocial phenomenon (Hadjistavropoulos et al., 2011). Viewing pain from many perspectives can help us better understand how to cope with it and treat it (FIGURE 6.41).

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Figure 6.44: FIGURE 6.41 Biopsychosocial approach to pain Our experience of pain is much more than neural messages sent to our brain.
Barros and Barros/The Image Bank/Getty Images
Halfpoint/Shutterstock
Robert Nickelsberg/Hulton Archive/Getty Images
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Acupuncture: A jab well done This acupuncturist is attempting to help this woman gain relief from back pain by using needles on points of the patient’s hand.
Gary Conner/Phototake

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CONTROLLING PAIN If pain is where body meets mind—if it is both a physical and a psychological phenomenon—then it should be treatable both physically and psychologically. Depending on the patient’s symptoms, pain control clinics select one or more therapies from a list that includes drugs, surgery, acupuncture, electrical stimulation, massage, exercise, hypnosis, relaxation training, and thought distraction.

These options reflect some striking influences on pain. When we are distracted from pain (a psychological influence) and soothed by the release of our naturally painkilling endorphins (a biological influence), our experience of pain diminishes. Sports injuries may go unnoticed until the after-game shower. People who carry a gene that boosts the availability of endorphins are less bothered by pain, and their brain is less responsive to pain (Zubieta et al., 2003). Others, who carry a mutated gene that disrupts pain circuit neurotransmission, may be unable to experience pain (Cox et al., 2006). Such discoveries could point the way toward new pain medications that mimic these genetic effects.

PLACEBOS Even an inert placebo can help, by dampening the central nervous system’s attention and responses to painful experiences—mimicking painkilling drugs (Eippert et al., 2009; Wager & Atlas, 2013). After being injected in the jaw with a stinging saltwater solution, men in one experiment received a placebo said to relieve pain, and they immediately felt better. Sometimes “nothing works.” Being given fake painkilling chemicals caused the brain to dispense real ones, as indicated by activity in an area that releases natural painkilling opiates (Scott et al., 2007; Zubieta et al., 2005). “Believing becomes reality,” noted one commentator (Thernstrom, 2006), as “the mind unites with the body.”

“Pain is increased by attending to it.”

Charles Darwin, The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals, 1872

DISTRACTION Distracting people with pleasant images (“Think of a warm, comfortable environment”) or drawing their attention away from painful stimulation (“Count backward by 3’s”) is an effective way to activate pain-inhibiting circuits and to increase pain tolerance (Edwards et al., 2009). A well-trained nurse may chat with needle-shy patients and ask them to look away when inserting the needle. Burn victims receiving excruciating wound care can benefit from an even more effective distraction: immersion in a computer-generated 3-D world, like the snow scene in FIGURE 6.42. Functional MRI (fMRI) scans have revealed that playing in the virtual reality reduces the brain’s pain-related activity (Hoffman, 2004). Because pain is in the brain, diverting the brain’s attention may bring relief. Better yet, research suggests, maximize pain relief by combining a placebo with distraction (Buhle et al., 2012), and amplify their effects with hypnosis. Hypnosis can also divert attention (see Thinking Critically About: Hypnosis and Pain Relief).

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FIGURE 6.42 Virtual-reality pain control For burn victims undergoing painful skin repair, an escape into virtual reality can powerfully distract attention, thus reducing pain and the brain’s response to painful stimulation. fMRI scans have illustrated a lowered pain response when the patient is distracted.
Images by Todd Richards and Aric Bills, U.W., ©Hunter Hoffman, www.vrpain.com

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Dissociation or social influence? This hypnotized woman being tested by famous researcher Ernest Hilgard showed no pain when her arm was placed in an ice bath. But asked to press a key if some part of her felt the pain, she did so. To Hilgard (1986, 1992), this was evidence of dissociation, or divided consciousness. The social influence perspective, however, maintains that people responding this way are caught up in playing the role of “good subject.”
Courtesy of Elizabeth Jecker

THINKING CRITICALLY ABOUT

Hypnosis and Pain Relief

Imagine you are about to be hypnotized. The hypnotist invites you to sit back, fix your gaze on a spot high on the wall, and relax. In a quiet, low voice the hypnotist suggests, “Your eyes are growing tired… . Your eyelids are becoming heavy … now heavier and heavier… . They are beginning to close… . You are becoming more deeply relaxed… . Your breathing is now deep and regular… . Your muscles are becoming more and more relaxed… . Your whole body is beginning to feel like lead.”

hypnosis a social interaction in which one person (the hypnotist) suggests to another (the subject) that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously occur.

After a few minutes of this hypnotic induction, you may experience hypnosis. Hypnotists have no magical mind-control power; they merely focus people on certain images or behaviors. To some extent, we are all open to suggestion. But highly hypnotizable people—such as the 20 percent who can carry out a suggestion not to smell or react to an open bottle of ammonia held under their nose—are especially suggestible and imaginative (Barnier & McConkey, 2004; Silva & Kirsch, 1992).

Can hypnosis relieve pain? Yes. When unhypnotized people put their arms in an ice bath, they felt intense pain within 25 seconds (Elkins et al., 2012; Jensen, 2008). When hypnotized people did the same after being given suggestions to feel no pain, they indeed reported feeling little pain. As some dentists know, light hypnosis can reduce fear, thus reducing hypersensitivity to pain. Hypnosis also lessens some forms of chronic pain (Adachi et al., 2014).

Hypnosis inhibits pain-related brain activity. In surgical experiments, hypnotized patients have required less medication, recovered sooner, and left the hospital earlier than unhypnotized control patients (Askay & Patterson, 2007; Hammond, 2008; Spiegel, 2007). Nearly 10 percent of us can become so deeply hypnotized that even major surgery can be performed without anesthesia. Half of us can gain at least some pain relief from hypnosis. The surgical use of hypnosis has flourished in Europe, where one Belgian medical team has performed more than 5000 surgeries with a combination of hypnosis, local anesthesia, and a mild sedative (Song, 2006).

Psychologists have proposed two explanations for how hypnosis works. One theory proposes that hypnosis is a form of normal social influence (Lynn et al., 1990, 2015; Spanos & Coe, 1992). In this view, hypnosis is a by-product of normal social and mental processes. Like actors caught up in their roles, people begin to feel and behave in ways appropriate for “good hypnotic subjects.” They may allow the hypnotist to direct their attention and fantasies away from pain.

dissociation a split in consciousness, which allows some thoughts and behaviors to occur simultaneously with others.

posthypnotic suggestion a suggestion, made during a hypnosis session, to be carried out after the subject is no longer hypnotized; used by some clinicians to help control undesired symptoms and behaviors.

Another theory views hypnosis as a special dual-processing state of dissociation—a split between different levels of consciousness. Dissociation theory offers an explanation for why people hypnotized for pain relief may show brain activity in areas that receive sensory information, but not in areas that normally process pain-related information. It also seeks to explain why, when no one is watching, hypnotized people may carry out posthypnotic suggestions (which are made during hypnosis but carried out after the person is no longer hypnotized) (Perugini et al., 1998).

Another form of dual processing—selective attention—may also play a role in hypnotic pain relief. Brain scans show that hypnosis increases activity in frontal lobe attention systems (Oakley & Halligan, 2013). And it reduces brain activity in a region that processes painful stimuli, but not in the somatosensory cortex, which receives the raw sensory input (Rainville et al., 1997). So, hypnosis does not block sensory input, but it may block our attention to those stimuli. This helps explain why an injured athlete, caught up in the competition, may feel little or no pain until the game ends.

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2Nz7guHN57Qn5E37mFoVtnbig4Ap6CtLqo3ORydohYsnSG8HfTfyQDM5BxMOns1So6saDaeHCAexZa2HVeqGxaTpVz8oPXVyAkou20YjEs40Py095h/ql1OEmLEY4lA83qIwUF5tv7GHvm0TzmjTop0TyUGYfUmsxIjFuWZ5IwN4oTrM

Taste

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6-21 In what ways are our senses of taste and smell similar, and how do they differ?

Like touch, our sense of taste involves several basic sensations. Taste’s sensations were once thought to be sweet, sour, salty, and bitter, with all others stemming from mixtures of these four (McBurney & Gent, 1979). Then, as investigators searched for specialized nerve fibers for the four taste sensations, they encountered a receptor for what we now know is a fifth—the savory meaty taste of umami, best experienced as the flavor enhancer monosodium glutamate (MSG).

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Tastes exist for more than our pleasure (see TABLE 6.2). Pleasureful tastes attracted our ancestors to energy- or protein-rich foods that enabled their survival. Aversive tastes deterred them from new foods that might be toxic. We see the inheritance of this biological wisdom in today’s 2- to 6-year-olds, who are typically fussy eaters, especially when offered new meats or bitter-tasting vegetables, such as spinach and brussels sprouts (Cooke et al., 2003). Meat and plant toxins were both potentially dangerous sources of food poisoning for our ancestors, especially for children. Given repeated small tastes of disliked new foods, however, children begin to accept them (Wardle et al., 2003). We come to like what we eat. Compared with breast-fed babies, German babies bottle-fed vanilla-flavored milk grew up to be adults with a striking preference for vanilla flavoring (Haller et al., 1999).

Taste is a chemical sense. Inside each little bump on the top and sides of your tongue are 200 or more taste buds, each containing a pore that catches food chemicals. Into each taste bud pore, 50 to 100 taste receptor cells project antenna-like hairs that sense food molecules. Some receptors respond mostly to sweet-tasting molecules, others to salty-, sour-, umami-, or bitter-tasting ones, and each has a matching partner cell in the brain (Barretto et al., 2015). It doesn’t take much to trigger a response that alerts your brain’s temporal lobe. If a stream of water is pumped across your tongue, the addition of a concentrated salty or sweet taste for but one-tenth of a second will get your attention (Kelling & Halpern, 1983). When a friend asks for “just a taste” of your soft drink, you can squeeze off the straw after a mere instant.

Taste receptors reproduce themselves every week or two, so if you burn your tongue with hot food it hardly matters. However, as you grow older, the number of taste buds decreases, as does taste sensitivity (Cowart, 1981). (No wonder adults enjoy strong-tasting foods that children resist.) Smoking and alcohol use accelerate these declines. Those who have lost their sense of taste have reported that food tastes like “straw” and is hard to swallow (Cowart, 2005).

“Life is not measured by the number of breaths we take, but by the moments that take our breath away.”

Author unknown

Essential as taste buds are, there’s more to taste than meets the tongue. Expectations can influence taste. When told a sausage roll was “vegetarian,” people in one experiment found it decidedly inferior to its identical partner labeled “meat” (Allen et al., 2008). In another experiment, being told that a wine cost $90 rather than its real $10 price made it taste better and triggered more activity in a brain area that responds to pleasant experiences (Plassmann et al., 2008).

Smell

Life begins with an inhale and ends with an exhale. Between birth and death, we will, on average, inhale and exhale 500 million breaths of life-sustaining air, bathing our nostrils in a stream of scent-laden molecules. The resulting experiences of smell (olfaction) are strikingly intimate: You inhale something of whatever or whoever it is you smell.

Impress your friends with your new word for the day: People unable to see are said to experience blindness. People unable to hear experience deafness. People unable to smell experience anosmia. The 1 in 7500 people born with anosmia not only have trouble cooking and eating, but also are somewhat more prone to depression, accidents, and relationship insecurity (Croy et al., 2012, 2013).

Like taste, smell is a chemical sense. We smell something when molecules of a substance carried in the air reach a tiny cluster of 20 million receptor cells at the top of each nasal cavity (FIGURE 6.43). These olfactory receptor cells, waving like sea anemones on a reef, respond selectively—to the aroma of a cake baking, to a wisp of smoke, to a friend’s fragrance. Instantly, they alert the brain through their axon fibers. Being part of an old, primitive sense, olfactory neurons bypass the brain’s sensory control center, the thalamus.

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Figure 6.45: FIGURE 6.43 The sense of smell If you are to smell a flower, airborne molecules of its fragrance must reach receptors at the top of your nose. Sniffing swirls air up to the receptors, enhancing the aroma. The receptor cells send messages to the brain’s olfactory bulb, and then onward to the temporal lobe’s primary smell cortex and to the parts of the limbic system involved in memory and emotion.

image For an animated explanation of how we smell, visit LaunchPad’s Concept Practice: Sense of Smell.

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Even nursing infants and their mothers have a literal chemistry to their relationship. They quickly learn to recognize each other’s scents (McCarthy, 1986). Aided by smell, a mother fur seal returning to a beach crowded with pups will find her own. Our human sense of smell is less acute than our senses of seeing and hearing. Looking out across a garden, we see its forms and colors in exquisite detail and hear a variety of birds singing, yet we smell little of it without sticking our nose into the blossoms.

Odor molecules come in many shapes and sizes—so many, in fact, that it takes many different receptors to detect them. A large family of genes designs the 350 or so receptor proteins that recognize particular odor molecules (Miller, 2004). Linda Buck and Richard Axel (1991) discovered (in work for which they received a 2004 Nobel Prize) that these receptor proteins are embedded on the surface of nasal cavity neurons. As a key slips into a lock, so odor molecules slip into these receptors. Yet we don’t seem to have a distinct receptor for each detectable odor. Odors trigger combinations of receptors, in patterns that are interpreted by the olfactory cortex. As the English alphabet’s 26 letters can combine to form many words, so odor molecules bind to different receptor arrays, producing at least 1 trillion odors that we could potentially discriminate (Bushdid et al., 2014). It is the combinations of olfactory receptors, which activate different neuron patterns, that allow us to distinguish between the aromas of fresh-brewed and hours-old coffee (Zou et al., 2005).

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The nose knows Humans have some 20 million olfactory receptors. A bloodhound has 220 million (Herz, 2007).
Layne Bailey/The Charlotte Observer/AP Photo

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For humans, the attractiveness of smells depends on learned associations (Herz, 2001). As babies nurse, their preference for the smell of their mother’s breast builds. So, too, with other associations. As good experiences are linked with a particular scent, people come to like that scent. This helps explain why people in the United States tend to like the smell of wintergreen (which they associate with candy and gum) more than do those in Great Britain (where it often is associated with medicine). In another example of odors evoking unpleasant emotions, researchers frustrated Brown University students with a rigged computer game in a scented room (Herz et al., 2004). Later, if exposed to the same odor while working on a verbal task, the students’ frustration was rekindled and they gave up sooner than others exposed to a different odor or no odor.

Our sensory experiences also interact with other aspects of our psychology. Our brain’s circuitry helps explain an odor’s power to evoke feelings and memories (FIGURE 6.44). A hotline runs between the brain area receiving information from the nose and the brain’s ancient limbic centers associated with memory and emotion. Thus, when put in a foul-smelling room, people expressed harsher judgments of immoral acts (such as lying or keeping a found wallet) and more negative attitudes toward gay men (Inbar et al., 2011; Schnall et al., 2008). Exposed to a fishy smell during a trust game, people became more suspicious (Lee & Schwarz, 2012). And when exposed to a sweet taste, people became sweeter on their romantic partners and sweeter to others by acting more helpful (Meier et al., 2012; Ren et al., 2015).

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Figure 6.46: FIGURE 6.44 Taste, smell, and memory Information from the taste buds (yellow arrow) travels to an area between the frontal and temporal lobes of the brain. It registers in an area not far from where the brain receives information from our sense of smell, which interacts with taste. The brain’s circuitry for smell (red area) also connects with areas involved in memory storage, which helps explain why a smell can trigger a memory.

Though it’s difficult to recall odors by name, we can easily recognize long-forgotten odors and their associated memories (Engen, 1987; Schab, 1991).

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8GreDhFRYWAyVktlAILR4z7KV9+Ce1+2mHaxgbyTFBHM5+WUC5joaP2GlbXYPM5mN13VHDvk+rO+gS0nV4ZjpWH1F28MeoaGzoKGCBFojPshPlVWuAQwk7xOTtK9kSdWJ5/l18cJimw/MjbRCBiisIBU71Jx5A/A3/ESCsIbrWKyeGIbMmg6+g==
ANSWER: We have four basic touch senses and five basic taste sensations. But we have no specific smell receptors. Instead, different combinations of odor receptors send messages to the brain, enabling us to recognize some 1 trillion different smells.

Body Position and Movement

6-22 How do we sense our body’s position and movement?

kinesthesia [kin-ehs-THEE-zhuh] the system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts.

vestibular sense the sense of body movement and position, including the sense of balance.

Important sensors in your joints, tendons, and muscles enable your kinesthesia—your sense of the position and movement of your body parts. By closing your eyes or plugging your ears you can momentarily imagine being without sight or sound. But what would it be like to live without touch or kinesthesia—without, therefore, being able to sense the positions of your limbs when you wake during the night? Ian Waterman of Hampshire, England, knows. In 1972, at age 19, Waterman contracted a rare viral infection that destroyed the nerves enabling his sense of light touch and of body position and movement. People with this condition report feeling disembodied, as though their body is dead, not real, not theirs (Sacks, 1985). With prolonged practice, Waterman learned to walk and eat—by visually focusing on his limbs and directing them accordingly. But if the lights go out, he crumples to the floor (Azar, 1998). Even for the rest of us, vision interacts with kinesthesia. Stand with your right heel in front of your left toes. Easy. Now close your eyes and you will probably wobble.

A companion vestibular sense monitors your head’s (and thus your body’s) position and movement. The biological gyroscopes for this sense of equilibrium are two structures in your inner ear. The first, your fluid-filled semicircular canals, look like a three-dimensional pretzel (FIGURE 6.36a). The second, connecting those canals with the cochlea, is the pair of vestibular sacs, which also contain fluid that moves when your head rotates or tilts. When this movement stimulates hair-like receptors, sending messages to the cerebellum at the back of your brain, you sense your body position and maintain your balance.

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Bodies in space These high school competitive cheer team members can thank their inner ears for the information that enables their brains to monitor their bodies’ position so expertly.
© Robert Kanavel

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If you twirl around and then come to an abrupt halt, neither the fluid in your semicircular canals nor your kinesthetic receptors will immediately return to their neutral state. The dizzy aftereffect fools your brain with the sensation that you’re still spinning. This illustrates a principle that underlies perceptual illusions: Mechanisms that normally give us an accurate experience of the world can, under certain conditions, fool us. Understanding how we get fooled provides clues to how our perceptual system works.

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yainZP9VUhPyDn8NfxQTQdT698jv3/JZg+A016ZSRr2QHuI4XxuBJ89QA+1WJZGNxrVorJRDd1wYA1LxBgrl++7eM3slbnXkgXX2QBNhrvfIZRNzJOPiHH/GZGwsimfiYbG2hi0Z0FLxhlfhnvCjUQdiP0y11Cpu
ANSWER: Kinesthetic receptors are located in our joints, tendons, and muscles. Vestibular sense receptors are located in our inner ear.

Sensory Interaction

6-23 How does sensory interaction influence our perceptions, and what is embodied cognition?

Our senses—seeing, hearing, touching, tasting, smelling—eavesdrop on one another (Rosenblum, 2013). In interpreting the world, our brain blends their inputs. Consider what happens to your sense of taste if you hold your nose, close your eyes, and have someone feed you various foods. A slice of apple may be indistinguishable from a chunk of raw potato. A piece of steak may taste like cardboard. Without their smells, a cup of cold coffee may be hard to distinguish from a glass of red wine. Our sense of smell sticks its nose into the business of taste.

sensory interaction the principle that one sense may influence another, as when the smell of food influences its taste.

Thus, to savor a taste, we normally breathe the aroma through our nose—which is why eating is not much fun when you have a bad cold. Smell can also change our perception of taste: A drink’s strawberry odor enhances our perception of its sweetness. Even touch can influence taste. Depending on its texture, a potato chip “tastes” fresh or stale (Smith, 2011). This is sensory interaction at work—the principle that one sense may influence another. Smell + texture + taste = flavor.

Vision and hearing may similarly interact. A weak flicker of light is more easily visible when accompanied by a short burst of sound (Kayser, 2007). And a sound may be easier to hear with a visual cue. If I [DM], as a person with hearing loss, watch a video with simultaneous captioning, I have no trouble hearing the words I am seeing. I may therefore think I don’t need the captioning, but if I then turn off the captioning, I suddenly realize I do need it. The eyes guide the ears (FIGURE 6.45).

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Figure 6.47: FIGURE 6.45 “FaceTime” phone improvement Seeing an animated face forming the words being spoken at the other end of a phone line, which Apple’s FaceTime function provides, makes those words easier to understand for hard-of-hearing listeners (Knight, 2004).
© Albrecht Weisser/Westend61/Corbis

But what do you suppose happens if the eyes and the ears disagree? What if we see a speaker saying one syllable while we hear another? Surprise: We may perceive a third syllable that blends both inputs. Seeing the mouth movements for ga while hearing ba we may perceive da. This phenomenon is known as the McGurk effect, after its discoverers, Scottish psychologist Harry McGurk and his assistant John MacDonald (1976). For all of us, lip reading is part of hearing.

Touch also interacts with our other senses. In detecting events, the brain can combine simultaneous touch and visual signals, thanks to neurons projecting from the somatosensory cortex back to the visual cortex (Macaluso et al., 2000). Touch even interacts with hearing. In one experiment, researchers blew a puff of air (such as our mouths produce when saying pa and ta) on the neck or hands as people heard either these sounds or the more airless sounds ba or da. The result? People more often misheard ba or da as pa or ta when played with the faint puff (Gick & Derrick, 2009). Thanks to sensory interaction, they heard with their skin.

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Our sensory experiences also interact with other aspects of our psychology. Our brain even blends our tactile and social judgments, as demonstrated in these playful experiments:

image IMMERSIVE LEARNING Are you wondering how researchers test these kinds of questions? Try LaunchPad’s How Would You Know If a Cup of Coffee Can Warm Up Relationships?

embodied cognition the influence of bodily sensations, gestures, and other states on cognitive preferences and judgments.

These examples of embodied cognition illustrate how brain circuits processing bodily sensations connect with brain circuits responsible for cognition. We think from within a body.

So, the senses interact: As we attempt to decipher our world, our brain blends inputs from multiple channels. For many people, an odor, perhaps of mint or chocolate, can evoke a sensation of taste (Stevenson & Tomiczek, 2007). But in a few select individuals, the senses become joined in a phenomenon called synesthesia, where one sort of sensation (such as hearing sound) involuntarily produces another (such as seeing color). Thus, hearing music may activate color-sensitive cortex regions and trigger a sensation of color (Brang et al., 2008; Hubbard et al., 2005). Seeing the number 3 may evoke a taste sensation (Ward, 2003).

* * *

For a summary of our sensory systems, see TABLE 6.3. The river of perception is fed by streams of sensation, cognition, and emotion.

If perception is the product of these three sources, what can we say about extrasensory perception, which claims that perception can occur apart from sensory input? For more on that question, see Thinking Critically About: ESP—Perception Without Sensation?

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Table 6.2: TABLE 6.3
Summarizing the Senses
Sensory System Source Receptors Key Brain Areas
Vision Light waves striking the eye Rods and cones in the retina Occipital lobes
Hearing Sound waves striking the outer ear Cochlear hair cells in the inner ear Temporal lobes
Touch Pressure, warmth, cold Receptors, most in the skin, detect pressure, warmth, cold, and pain Somatosensory cortex
Taste Chemical molecules in the mouth Basic tongue receptors for sweet, sour, salty, bitter, and umami Frontal temporal lobe border
Smell Chemical molecules breathed in through the nose Millions of receptors at top of nasal cavity Olfactory bulb
Body position—kinesthesia Any change in position of a body part, interacting with vision Kinesthetic sensors in joints, tendons, and muscles Cerebellum
Body movement—vestibular sense Movement of fluids in the inner ear caused by head/body movement Hair-like receptors in the ears’ semicircular canals and vestibular sacs Cerebellum

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THINKING CRITICALLY ABOUT

ESP—Perception Without Sensation?

6-24 What are the claims of ESP, and what have most research psychologists concluded after putting these claims to the test?

extrasensory perception (ESP) the controversial claim that perception can occur apart from sensory input; includes telepathy, clairvoyance, and precognition.

Without sensory input, are we capable of extrasensory perception (ESP)? Are there indeed people—any people—who can read minds, see through walls, or foretell the future? Nearly half of Americans have agreed there are (AP, 2007; Moore, 2005).

The most testable and, for this discussion, most relevant ESP claims are

  • telepathy: mind-to-mind communication.

  • clairvoyance: perceiving remote events, such as a house on fire in another state.

  • precognition: perceiving future events, such as an unexpected death in the next month.

Closely linked is psychokinesis, or “mind movement,” such as levitating a table or influencing the roll of a die. (The claim is illustrated by the wry request, “Will all those who believe in psychokinesis please raise my hand?”)

If ESP is real, we would need to overturn the scientific understanding that we are creatures whose minds are tied to our physical brains and whose perceptual experiences are built of sensations. Sometimes new evidence does overturn our scientific preconceptions.

parapsychology the study of paranormal phenomena, including ESP and psychokinesis.

Most research psychologists and scientists have been skeptical that paranormal phenomena exist. But in several reputable universities, parapsychology researchers perform scientific experiments searching for possible ESP (Storm, 2010a, b; Turpin, 2005). Before seeing how they do so, let’s consider some popular beliefs.

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BIZARRO © 2014 Dan Piraro, Dist. By King Features

Premonitions or Pretensions?

Can psychics see into the future? Although one might wish for a psychic stock forecaster, the tallied forecasts of “leading psychics” reveal meager accuracy. During the 1990s, the tabloid psychics were all wrong in predicting surprising events. (Madonna did not become a gospel singer, the Statue of Liberty did not lose both its arms in a terrorist blast, Queen Elizabeth did not abdicate her throne to enter a convent.) And the psychics have missed big-news events. Why, despite a $50 million reward, could none of them help locate Osama bin Laden after 9/11? Where were the psychics on 9/10 when we needed them? In 2010, when a mine collapse trapped 33 miners, the Chilean government reportedly consulted four psychics. Their verdict? “They’re all dead” (Kraul, 2010). But 69 days later, all 33 were rescued. After Amanda Berry went missing in Cleveland in 2003, her distraught and desperate mother turned to a famed psychic on a national television show for answers. “She’s not alive, honey,” the psychic told the devastated mom, who died without living to see her daughter’s brave escape in 2013 (Radford, 2013). According to one analysis, this result brought that psychic’s record on 116 missing person and death cases to 83 unknown outcomes, 33 incorrect, and zero mostly correct. To researcher Ryan Shaffer (2013), that’s the record of a “psychic defective.”

The psychic visions offered to police departments have been no more accurate than guesses made by others (Nickell, 1994, 2005; Radford, 2010; Reiser, 1982). Their sheer volume does, however, increase the odds of an occasional correct guess, which psychics can then report to the media. Police departments are wise to all this. When researchers asked the police departments of America’s 50 largest cities whether they ever had used psychics, 65 percent said No (Sweat & Durm, 1993). Of those that had, not one had found them helpful.

Psychics’ vague predictions sometimes sound correct when later retrofitted to match events. Nostradamus, a sixteenth-century French psychic, explained in an unguarded moment that his ambiguous prophecies “could not possibly be understood till they were interpreted after the event and by it.”

Are the spontaneous “visions” of everyday people any more accurate? Do dreams, for example, foretell the future, as people from both Eastern and Western cultures tend to believe—making some people more reluctant to fly after dreaming of a plane crash (Morewedge & Norton, 2009)? Or do they only seem to do so when we recall or reconstruct them in light of what has already happened? Two Harvard psychologists tested the prophetic power of dreams after superhero aviator Charles Lindbergh’s baby son was kidnapped and murdered in 1932 (Murray & Wheeler, 1937). Before the body was discovered, they invited people to report their dreams about the child, and 1300 visionaries submitted dream reports. How many accurately envisioned the child dead? Five percent. And how many individuals also correctly anticipated the body’s location—buried among trees? Only 4 of the 1300. Although this number was surely no better than chance, to those four dreamers the accuracy of their apparent precognitions must have seemed uncanny.

Given the billions of events in the world each day, and given enough days, some stunning coincidences are sure to occur. By one careful estimate, chance alone would predict that more than a thousand times a day someone on Earth will think of another person and then, within the next five minutes, learn of that person’s death (Charpak & Broch, 2004). Thus, when explaining an astonishing event, we should “give chance a chance” (Lilienfeld, 2009). With enough time and people, the improbable becomes inevitable.

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Putting ESP to Experimental Test

When faced with claims of mind reading or out-of-body travel or communication with the dead, how can we separate bizarre ideas from those that sound strange but are true? At the heart of science is a simple answer: Test them to see if they work. If they do, so much the better for the ideas. If they don’t, so much the better for our skepticism.

This scientific attitude has led both believers and skeptics to agree that what parapsychology needs is a reproducible phenomenon and a theory to explain it. Parapsychologist Rhea White (1998) spoke for many in saying “The image of parapsychology that comes to my mind, based on nearly 44 years in the field, is that of a small airplane [that] has been perpetually taxiing down the runway of the Empirical Science Airport since 1882 … its movement punctuated occasionally by lifting a few feet off the ground only to bump back down on the tarmac once again. It has never taken off for any sustained flight.”

“To be sure of hitting the target, shoot first and call whatever you hit the target.”

Writer-artist Ashleigh Brilliant

“A person who talks a lot is sometimes right.”

Spanish proverb

How might we test ESP claims in a controlled, reproducible experiment? An experiment differs from a staged demonstration. In the laboratory, the experimenter controls what the “psychic” sees and hears; on stage, the psychic controls what the audience sees and hears.

Daryl Bem, a respected social psychologist, has been a skeptic of stage psychics; he once quipped that “a psychic is an actor playing the role of a psychic” (1984). Yet he reignited hopes for replicable evidence with nine experiments that seemed to show people anticipating future events (2011). In one, when an erotic scene was about to be displayed in one of two randomly selected screen placements, Cornell University participants guessed the right placement 53.1 percent of the time (beating 50 percent by a small but statistically significant margin).

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Testing psychic powers in the British population Psychologists created a “mind machine” to see if people could influence or predict a coin toss (Wiseman & Greening, 2002). Using a touch-sensitive screen, visitors to British festivals were given four attempts to call heads or tails, playing against a computer that kept score. By the time the experiment ended, nearly 28,000 people had predicted 110,959 tosses—with 49.8 percent correct.
Courtesy of Claire Cole

Despite Bem’s published research having survived critical reviews by a top-tier journal, other critics found the methods “badly flawed” (Alcock, 2011) or the statistical analyses “biased” (Wagenmakers et al., 2011). “A result—especially one of this importance—must recur several times in tests by independent and skeptical researchers to gain scientific credibility,” observed astronomer David Helfand (2011). “I have little doubt that Professor Bem’s experiments will fail this test.”

Anticipating such skepticism, Bem has made his computer materials available to anyone who wishes to replicate his studies. Multiple attempts have since been made, with minimal success and continuing controversy (Bem et al., 2014; Galak et al., 2012; Ritchie et al., 2012; Wagenmakers, 2014). Regardless, science is doing its work. It has been open to a finding that challenges its own assumptions. And then, through follow-up research, it has assessed its validity. And that is how science sifts crazy-sounding ideas, leaving most on the historical waste heap while occasionally surprising us.

“At the heart of science is an essential tension between two seemingly contradictory attitudes—an openness to new ideas, no matter how bizarre or counterintuitive they may be, and the most ruthless skeptical scrutiny of all ideas, old and new.”

Carl Sagan (1987)

One skeptic, magician James Randi, has had a long-standing offer of $1 million to be given “to anyone who proves a genuine psychic power under proper observing conditions” (Randi, 1999; Thompson, 2010). French, Australian, and Indian groups have made similar offers of up to 200,000 euros (CFI, 2003). Large as these sums are, the scientific seal of approval would be worth far more. To refute those who say there is no ESP, one need only produce a single person who can demonstrate a single, reproducible ESP event. (To refute those who say pigs can’t talk would take but one talking pig.) So far, no such person has emerged.

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Question

lSjLiGGIvYpAMgPHOUeu9mDacoZWTl0H/+veha2UWoNQjvyfb4jrK+LRK//p/fSSblhaH4OX0z9eU3Reu9JjdPf6QEuKggHRYqnge3kx5balsZHKuiOjl5w0qfL15OaYXwRxznzg9E8QS8sWVV+nNAqBb1UnbaiyZFJn1q4O9AwLUke4b6Y/XKJJ2XoXQIG0Yb3KPYkR3X+4ZNy+qCzvP12ZE3X9Lauo
ANSWER: The ESP event would need to be reproduced in other scientific studies.

* * *

To feel awe, mystery, and a deep reverence for life, we need look no further than our own perceptual system and its capacity for organizing formless nerve impulses into colorful sights, vivid sounds, and evocative smells. As Shakespeare’s Hamlet recognized, “There are more things in Heaven and Earth, Horatio, than are dreamt of in your philosophy.” Within our ordinary sensory and perceptual experiences lies much that is truly extraordinary—surely much more than has so far been dreamt of in our psychology.

Learning Objectives

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Test Yourself by taking a moment to answer each of these Learning Objective Questions (repeated here from within the chapter). Research suggests that trying to answer these questions on your own will improve your long-term memory of the concepts (McDaniel et al., 2009).

Question

RfpgaPaMuiaTFVlGsNsybIz3fqntnGMXXr4+zAzvwg0pdNdkxLwnS0c8CmhuJaorusJAAAbf6jFcm0NvBHG8KyAXVgoExetOvYIhFIc2ug8l0eopwhK/I/DAxZrdPJ0lg1AxeOkfeU3zXJNT/l907VgJMUe89aourBWpJQNQ4DRbKTVbFbkG3mV8Ux7foXbpqG9TmA8qPUXC9lalncX1PuZt8UDbfuVkZGQzpn2SZYegQw1Nm2wMS3ScP9g=
ANSWER: Sound waves are bands of compressed and expanded air. Our ears detect these changes in air pressure and transform them into neural impulses, which the brain decodes as sound. Sound waves vary in amplitude, which we perceive as differing loudness, and in frequency, which we experience as differing pitch.

Question

KP4wgQKTGmTOPtV4o9sTWYrHiwg+M5gLK2W83XI/5yWJt8LHsxKIkq8vBKnqsSKkSdyVSFbT+rB4knbu/W+MROiJctntgPE7c7t3BObae0gdAcDFNocCPeQywWioewypgREgVNMA8zkGACjyRb8t14/aEoQG0akUwGP8PK0np1bv+FYk1n/K5tdFxPuOrLmrf8D2g3RNfWnRBQhcujymVhFz8HM87OB8XTcQNKhdNbw=
ANSWER: The outer ear is the visible portion of the ear. The middle ear is the chamber between the eardrum and cochlea. The inner ear consists of the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs. Through a mechanical chain of events, sound waves traveling through the auditory canal cause tiny vibrations in the eardrum. The bones of the middle ear amplify the vibrations and relay them to the fluid-filled cochlea. Rippling of the basilar membrane, caused by pressure changes in the cochlear fluid, causes movement of the tiny hair cells, triggering neural messages to be sent (via the thalamus) to the auditory cortex in the brain. Sensorineural hearing loss (or nerve deafness) results from damage to the cochlea's hair cells or their associated nerves. Conduction hearing loss results from damage to the mechanical system that transmits sound waves to the cochlea. Cochlear implants can restore hearing for some people.

Question

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ANSWER: Loudness is not related to the intensity of a hair cell's response. The brain interprets loudness from the number of activated hair cells. Place theory explains how we hear high-pitched sounds, and frequency theory explains how we hear low- pitched sounds. (A combination of the two theories explains how we hear pitches in the middle range.) Place theory proposes that our brain interprets a particular pitch by decoding the place where a sound wave stimulates the cochlea's basilar membrane. Frequency theory proposes that the brain deciphers the frequency of the neural impulses traveling up the auditory nerve to the brain. Sound waves strike one ear sooner and more intensely than the other. To locate sounds, the brain analyzes the minute differences in the sounds received by the two ears and computes the sound's source.

Question

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ANSWER: Our sense of touch is actually several senses—pressure, warmth, cold, and pain—that combine to produce other sensations, such as "hot."

Question

yvQlGFFA7IXsxMmldMLm4GyHL7Y9ZHsL+afCLVp5LyOsh7I4FfJNrzhz/IRBv0b3pwr70kQ6wYI2ifS4CfeKqGlnv4XU3bo2Rl55Gr8UTY69gjH3LDkE88CHplYctMtFpAnwoDHgh5OQs8nX72rDevmA76U03/VNmGabNdP49RCMkNuylT7CHQY7KOcBsKLAS3KtD1lfrHIv0YCcJf1nf9x2MP/TobFrY1pKIcP9fn0teOouhOo/NI6gRy6fVM/It6S7VBsCjNhgSe5bV9CpuW7Nm6bjVFPlPHAVMZ0uvzoR6hNcE/hnUTnkAhGxjOAtmwCRYUq9MIt7FJorZkulyihVXWNVyQ9zklfOdmmymRjpxtCyJX3dIjHdafnuPcddI2dOualOz3L4UgO0NuY/vvTGqahSbFJSrD3kT9oPpk4=
ANSWER: Pain reflects bottom-up sensations (such as input from nociceptors, the sensory receptors that detect hurtful temperatures, pressure, or chemicals) and top-down processes (such as experience, attention, and culture). One theory of pain is that a "gate" in the spinal cord either opens to permit pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers to reach the brain, or closes to prevent their passage. The biopsychosocial perspective views our perception of pain as the sum of biological, psychological, and social-cultural influences. For example, our experience of pain is influenced by activity in the spinal cord's large and small fibers (a biological influence), attention to pain (a psychological influence), and cultural expectations (a social-cultural influence). Pain treatments often combine physical and psychological elements. Placebos can help by dampening the central nervous system's attention and response to painful experiences. Distractions draw people's attention away from painful stimulation. Hypnosis, which increases our response to suggestions, can also help relieve pain. Posthypnotic suggestion is used by some clinicians to control undesired symptoms.

Question

uZPdvmagsBWR9jqJqDPtRX1/aGlvPXPlJubW+N6EEsThxx7U8DZ0ZiLYbsj54iDI8xGqVTY2E+98q8Pf+dOKkxw6lgMkFMufEIIiM+erWsJT6tZuJlZPpuFtkLufM3THjmaa4f+8itOwoq2Mcpf1yCMSWRfIFfn93SXKL2zs4ttbxmr8l2h1wTwMBrTsxP6FSrvEmCwJj9H+zhFy8SLhqaG/1kZHYyV8DqXrmu0IVCaleNpWey6XzTgH8bIjXEg0r//P1A==
ANSWER: Taste and smell are both chemical senses. Taste is a composite of five basic sensations—sweet, sour, salty, bitter, and umami—and of the aromas that interact with information from the taste receptor cells of the taste buds. There are no basic sensations for smell. We smell something when molecules of a substance carried in the air reach a tiny cluster of 20 million receptor cells at the top of each nasal cavity. Odor molecules trigger combinations of receptors, in patterns that the olfactory cortex interprets. The receptor cells send messages to the brain's olfactory bulb, then to the temporal lobe, and to parts of the limbic system.

Question

2ykzp1KWwZEATpGup8D/eqXGwuY8hPHpxBMNRm5kd3hV3SMJtJCegQwT4/qdPxIcuwH7t0yFz8EUwWFYJKj2+vufLH6B6iF+3p5kFHnDsCKnPSRrSuaZiSEOo2FvpJOUM+0sDINuo6n9ihlAdWV57pUUHpEPe2C2H1/Vu75WIJ9d+GtIKxa8jcrNKPQRipnE0nbRv0ktujRZsBIcFEzSsjkA75w=
ANSWER: Through kinesthesia, we sense the position and movement of our body parts. We monitor our head's (and thus our body's) position and movement, and maintain our balance, with our vestibular sense.

Question

6q/jqo56VcQrBv618eXNVIqawx8UYn+wfGLaaCB4oZJLGlUy9/KGL6LvCRoy2u51uofUd8sH8zhdMUImstFdMT6aIJyTGzTGk528OLC+wbg6GHhtetS7p48cV8DDSdhy59WgzkaPfNuSa9vSUt4GFv+gpG7YD9F+pjDzI5j1lvHoAa9wyuiMr0UvTReJ4eOCwNU9PwgA34GIAaoS+EXIMXEj8MurdZzFEzoBS0ddlf2rJoQoz7Vas7CBMAP9h2ROgNcc/dPtGEF7Qr3Bnh+vE/gEr2EEyjlpMFK4YA==
ANSWER: Our senses can influence one another. This sensory interaction occurs, for example, when the smell of a favorite food amplifies its taste. Embodied cognition is the influence of bodily sensations, gestures, and other states on cognitive prefer- ences and judgments.

Question

vqDFw1Cf04ugaibSQzYLiI2WoMVbfm5mzgtObiqCeCSnEMoDyeKKytqN1g4xSCmQNSBk/13RvZKR/zD2F8yTdSeaa/IpLtUz1yObKGQLCiL6JApkQan0vUMw4tDv3nZJ0+0TROo14qWtnJBp+/jwRBIJAkZod0P1WHqGlHI17dgIeblKol8IBxLGcGw7LV2nVJ2nU0yMB3oXfagBrsRwleVucq2wcvu5c15R+IbIpGdXCs9R0/W6cJf5RiTT2pZWmU9p+etxk1ONy4HE2LLeN9Gv/gDgXefvfznRWci/MMaP/oH6QEmilQHzQyQ=
ANSWER: Parapsychology is the study of paranormal phenomena, including extrasensory perception (ESP) and psychokinesis. The three most testable forms of ESP are telepathy (mind-to-mind communication), clairvoyance (perceiving remote events), and precognition (perceiving future events). Skeptics argue that (1) to believe in ESP, you must believe the brain is capable of perceiving without sen- sory input, and (2) researchers have been unable to replicate ESP phenomena under controlled conditions.

Terms and Concepts to Remember

Test yourself on these terms.

Question

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

Experience the Testing Effect

Test yourself repeatedly throughout your studies. This will not only help you figure out what you know and don’t know; the testing itself will help you learn and remember the information more effectively thanks to the testing effect.

Question 6.24

1. The snail-shaped tube in the inner ear, where sound waves are converted into neural activity, is called the LJfllkMB6Ks7STQ0 .

Question 6.25

ydEweGmSvzhfIbB/DQJ98304umQsuskrejD5YnOa6OII4/5apAeoi2Ax8v9EVfPTIB6DPCd0ZAYIdgPEtjCpdr5CkJ/XYpb7oYKh5+IEjPxw4MEtLwICBvzn2DQ3qu4M5PNN2uSDPdkRRysXiKNDZxe9PePa/P6IbWMLHFOhnmgODSG61RNBpBgH68tgeSeRiDa4aPIB84Ka+ktaVHWQe6nLJZyLNYIX
ANSWER: The outer ear collects sound waves, which are translated into mechanical waves by the middle ear and turned into fluid waves in the inner ear. The auditory nerve then translates the energy into electrical waves and sends them to the brain, which perceives and interprets the sound.

Question 6.26

3. IdG4V7ZZiixXXpnP theory explains how we hear high-pitched sounds, and CqGgLKGmanSMHuKNO3smnw== theory explains how we hear low-pitched sounds.

Question 6.27

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

Question 6.28

Anv1flkWFsYQlcjLvqRfkAippZu+NO6ehKH88TMEioM5CCLNuonmTxiaoSZJoHSimaBs2zBKefKBdhpLRvX+PRGnoAqKL1Puqr3hipD8zFKIEnktR6c9/pJElEN/LAE2ECYkC+lZ0y7L1B43cctKudPs2wyPQisJKze3HeLBw/9xG5HIl9S0YIWQ8BGheNbYTlNE9C93ICUIULwa/E/ExTFmS//x5EdIL54RfXK7r9yaKR+5
ANSWER: Our experience of pain is influenced by biological factors (such as sensory receptors that detect pressure), psychological factors (such as our focused attention), and social-cultural factors (such as social expectations about tolerance and expression of pain).

Question 6.29

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ANSWER: We have specialized receptors for detecting sweet, salty, sour, bitter, and umami tastes. Being able to detect pleasurable tastes enabled our ancestors to seek out energy- and protein-rich foods. Detecting aversive tastes deterred them from eating toxic substances, increasing their chances of survival.

Question 6.30

7. M24v9s4wUkHfzNENhWz+8A== is your sense of body position and movement. Your G17LjbL0Y2rrYDiCH59ZT3NZ/R5QJZb4 specifically monitors your head's movement, with sensors in the inner ear.

Question 6.31

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ANSWER: Your vestibular sense regulates balance and body positioning through kinesthetic receptors triggered by fluid in your inner ear. Wobbly legs and a spinning world are signs that these receptors are still responding to the ride's turbulence. As your vestibular sense adjusts to solid ground, your balance will be restored.

Question 6.32

jgmFLeg3fM+EC7+dKt8peweesklAumxrJnKw0NKRFLiSWi5qu8mIkqaHeb/tSdFAQcvrRV9oVR00zsm++pCxYnsJUCtr9JcnMxvv1SxGZN5iPJxyrlCniuCgc+WSe3R6KHb+f2xSpnabgJdnbBhW+B9Hdp4SfdOdfJyYpknRTuL9UgK4KF5u8HxRhbBxh2dEgNdlriefWE0vZBf9euqo2PMvNbBWoRlrMpN7gEGqGsgGq6z3xFwSwWYm0aVyrvsrNS5ghqhCH2kRRWIA

Question 6.33

NhKUYeqM6ka6Vu3FrHt8B0HJCWuSn7FLteNJQwC+Ls4IxE+BJzp6CEVRPawbr1fu6MtRNdL5mCFf2YiMf/NXbsy7Ira4LK6vAGjOW9jDzLZKtKW3EYt4TGwY3/B0URox8fny8w7d6BY4eQ1QG1vgCjSRKhnu0NfNuY0eVvEVS6XhGvYSOWgCDyyW24WIUoIth8vaj3ME1WjNsoYIaEYWyqH05kIsyBE+1eZttSMwKCsyHHryoW245Mu0gy/WE8k+JuY7Qc34X3mT2Ea/t236rSV3nRo7KRkV

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