20 Whose Government? Politics, Populists, and Progressives

1880–1917

Turn-of-the-century reformers had plenty of targets. The industrial economy and urban development created opportunities and problems. The problems kept both Populists and progressives busy but in different ways. Both groups pointed to failures in the laissez-faire capitalist system as it had matured in the context of industrialization, spawning monopolies and political manipulation and corruption that threatened the fabric of democratic self-governance. These reform groups, irritated by the indifference of the two major parties controlled by political bosses and Wall Street manipulators, forged new movements designed to wrest control from vested interests and return power to the people. Of course, specific issues divided reformers, rendering any coherence within progressive ranks all but impossible to achieve. Still, the era accomplished a great deal, mobilizing efforts to reform civic government, introducing workplace health and safety regulations, and addressing persistent racism and discrimination against African Americans. Despite an unfinished agenda, this period of reform helped create the modern state whose architecture survives into the twenty-first century.