Index

I-1

Numbers in italic indicate that the information will be found in an illustration or table.

A

A band, 683, 684

A horizon, 540

Aardvarks, 340, 514

Abandonment, 832

“ABC” system, 580

Abiotic components, 846

ABO blood group, 159–160

Aboral surface, 498

Abortion, spontaneous, 145

Abscisic acid, 559, 566–567, 599, 600

Abscission, 562

Absorption

in the digestive system, 633

in the midgut, 638

phenotypic plasticity in, 635

Absorption spectrum, 120

Absorptive heterotrophy, 408, 451–452

Absorptive state, 639

Abundance

meanings of, 865

measures of, 865

populations and, 865

variation in space and over time, 865, 866

Abyssal zone, 857

Acanthamoeba polyphaga mimivirus (APMV), 397

Acanthostega, 506

Accessory fruits, 444

Accessory pigments, 121

Accessory reproductive organs, 770

Acclimate, 618

Acclimatize, 618

Acetaminophen, 37

Acetone, 253

Acetyl CoA

anabolic conversions, 117

in the citric acid cycle, 111

formation by β-oxidation of fatty acids, 116

formation in pyruvate oxidation, 110–111

in glucose-activated fatty acid synthesis, 118

total production in glucose oxidation, 113

Acetylation, of histones, 227

Acetylcholine (ACh), 97, 709, 710, 726

Acetylcholine receptor, 97

Acetylcholinesterase, 57

Acetylsalicylic acid, 37

Achatina fulica, 486

Acid growth hypothesis, 563

Acid–base catalysis, 51

Acidophilic thermophiles, 389

Acinonyx jubatus, 832

Acoelomates, 473, 474

Acorn worms, 499–500

Acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS)

description of, 824–825

drug treatments, 212, 825

fungal diseases and, 454

HIV life cycle, 225 (see also Human immunodeficiency virus)

Acrocentric chromosomes, 346

Acromyrmex versicolor, 882

Acropora millepora, 325

Acrosomal process, 774

Acrosome, 774

Actin

contractile ring, 135

microfilaments, 73, 74

sliding-filament theory of muscle contraction, 682–688

Actin filaments

sliding-filament theory of muscle contraction, 682–688

structure, 685

in the structure of myofibrils, 682–684

Actinobacteria, 384–385

Actinomyces, 385

Action potentials

at chemical synapses, 709

at electrical synapses, 710

excitable cells and, 700

excitation of muscle fibers, 685, 686

neural basis of sensation and, 715

at neuromuscular junctions, 710

production and propagation, 700, 707–708

properties of electricity and membrane potentials, 702–707

sensory transduction and, 714

summation of postsynaptic potentials and, 712–713

travel in large axons and in myelinated axons, 708–709

See also Nerve impulse

Action spectrum, 120

Activation energy, 50

Activators

enhancers and, 223

in positive gene regulation, 216

regulation of inducible and repressible systems, 219

Active site, of enzymes, 51

Active transport, 91–92

Adaptations

natural selection and the creation of, 10–11, 304–305

proximate and ultimate explanations, 11

Adaptive defenses

compared to innate defenses, 811

defined, 810

overview, 810

Adaptive immune response

discovery and overview, 815–816

key features of, 816–817

role of macrophages and dendritic cells in, 817

types of responses in, 817–818 (see also Cellular immune response; Humoral immune response)

Adenine

base pairing, 38–40, 41

in DNA, 176, 177

in DNA replication, 179

structure, 38

Adenohypophysis. See Anterior pituitary

Adenosine, 102–103

Adenosine diphosphate (ADP), 106, 107

Adenosine monophosphate (AMP), 106, 107

Adenosine receptors, 102–103

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)

in active transport, 91, 92

in aerobic cellular respiration, 109, 110

as a cofactor, 52

hydrolysis and the release of energy, 106–107

linkage of cellular respiration to photosynthesis, 118

muscle contraction and, 685, 688

in the release and reuse of cellular energy, 108

structure and properties, 106–107

systems for supplying to muscle cells, 691–692

See also ATP production

Adhesion, 23–24

Adiabatic process, 850

Adiantum, 431

Adrenal cortex

hypothalamus–pituitary–adrenal cortex axis, 742–743

major hormones and their actions, 739, 744

Adrenal medulla

fight-or-flight response, 739

major hormones and their actions, 739, 744

Adrenaline. See Epinephrine

Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), 741, 743, 744

Adventitious roots, 529, 530, 531, 532, 535

Advil, 37

Aegolius acadicus, 512

Aepyceros melampus, 827, 840

Aequorea victoria, 325

Aequorin, 686

Aerenchyma, 599

Aerobic ATP production, 617

Aerobic cellular respiration

ATP yield 113, 113

chemiosmosis, 111–113, 114

citric acid cycle, 111

glycolysis, 109–110

overview, 109

oxidative phosphorylation, 111, 112

pyruvate oxidation, 110–111

Aerobic metabolism

defined, 3

in the evolution of life, 3

prokaryotes, 394

Aerotolerant anaerobes, 394

Aeta people, 869, 870

Aflatoxin, 191

African apes, 515

African clawed frog, 454

See also Xenopus laevis

African coelacanth, 505

African insectivores, 514

Afrosoricida, 514

AGAMOUS gene, 580

Agarose, 255

Agassiz, Louis, 494

Age of Humans, 861–862

Aggregate fruits, 444

Aging, telomere length and, 184

Agre, Peter, 90

Agriculture

biotechnology and, 267–270

coffee cultivation, 898, 900, 914

ecological impact of, 861, 862

effects of nitrogen runoff, 923, 925

fertilizers, 541

Green Revolution, 555, 570–571, 876

hybrids and apomixis, 586–587

importance of evolutionary principles to, 321–322

importance of plant cloning, 276

“intercropping,” 914

pathogenic fungi and, 454

polyploidy and crop plants, 145–146

shifting agriculture, 541

sustainable, 553–554

vegetative reproduction and, 587

I-2

Agrobacterium tumefaciens, 259, 387, 388

Agropyron repens, 440

AHK protein, 566

AHP protein, 566

AIDS. See Acquired immune deficiency syndrome

Air quality indicators, 466

Air sacs

bird lungs, 652–653

insect tracheal breathing system, 653, 654

Alanine, 43

Alcohol detoxification enzymes, 618

Alcoholic beverages, 105, 126

Alcoholic fermentation, 115, 116, 126

Alcoholism, 215, 232

Aldehyde group, 25

Alderflies, 495

Aldosterone, 738

Aleurone layer, 560

Alexandrium, 401

Algae

defined, 421

in the evolution of plants, 422

symbiosis with corals, 631

Alkaloids, 594

Alkaptonuria, 195

Allantois, 803

Allele frequencies

calculating, 307–308

gene flow and, 305

genetic drift and, 305

the genetic structure of a population and, 308

Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium and, 308–310

impact of nonrandom mating on, 306, 307

Alleles

defined, 152, 302

gene pools, 302–303

heterozygote advantage, 316–317

hierarchy of dominance, 158–159

homozygous and heterozygous, 153

human pedigrees, 157–158

incompatibility between can produce reproductive isolation, 346, 347

inheritance, 152–158

in the production of phenotype, 158–162

wild type and mutant, 158

Allergic reaction, 814

Alligators, 510

Allocation principle, 870

Allolactose, 217

Allometry, 804

Allomyces macrogynus, 461

Allopatric populations, 354

Allopatric speciation, 348–349

Allopolyploidy, 350

Allosteric enzymes, 54–55

Allosteric regulation

compared to transcriptional regulation, 219–220

description of, 54–55

in signal transduction pathways, 96

Alpha (α) cells, 640

Alpha (α) helix

in leucine zippers, 232

in protein structure, 44, 46

Alpha-linolenic acid, 627

α-Adrenergic receptors, 739

Alpine biome, 855

Alpine meadows, 855, 856

Alpine pennycress, 601–602

Alsophilia spinulosa, 429

Alternation of generations

ferns, 430–431

land plants, 424–425

protist life cycles, 414–415

Alternative splicing, of mRNA, 229, 230

Altruism, 840–841, 895

Alveolar sacs, 654, 655

Alveolates, 406–407

Alveoli, 654, 655

Alzheimer’s disease, 223–224

Amacrine cells, 720, 721

Amanita muscaria, 465

Amber, 172

Amborella, 445

Amborella trichopoda, 445

Ambros, Victor, 230

Ambulacrarians, 498

Amebocytes, 810

Amensalism, 883, 884

American bison, 883, 889

American chestnut, 464, 891

American elm, 464

Amine hormones

receptor proteins, 738

secretion, 739

structure and function, 638, 737

Amino acids

absorption in the midgut, 638

in animal nutrition, 627

binding of tRNA to, 206–207

essential amino acids, 627, 641

genetic code, 203–206

major groupings, 43–44

as neurotransmitters, 711

nonprotein, 594

peptide bonding, 44, 45

polypeptide formation in translation, 206–210

regulation of blood levels, 640

structure of, 42–43

Amino group, 25, 42–43

“Ammocoetes,” 805

Ammonia

cycling, 395–396

nitrogen fixation and, 543–544

Ammonium, 922

Ammonium sulfate, 541

Ammonotelic animals, 755

Amnion, 794

Amniote egg, 508

Amniotes

colonization of dry environments, 508

evolution of, 506

extraembryonic membranes, 802–804

phylogeny of, 509

See also Mammals; Reptiles

Amniotic cavity, 803

Amoeba proteus, 76, 412

Amoebozoans, 412–414

Amphibian decline

experiments on, 12–13, 14, 15

pathogenic fungi and, 454, 455

world-wide occurrence of, 508

Amphibians

adaptations for life on land, 506

breathing system, 652

circulatory system, 666–667

excretion of nitrogenous wastes, 756

gastrulation, 794–795

hearts, 667

life cycles, 507–508

major groups and key features, 506–507

metamorphosis, 805

nephron function and urine production, 761–763

organizer, 799

polarity in early development, 789

Amphidiniopsis kofoidii, 406

Amphipathic molecules, 30

Amphiprion, 884–885

Amphiprion ocellaris, 885

Amphiprion percula, 775

Amphisbaenians, 508

Ampicillin, 380–381

Amygdala, 729

Amylase, 636

Anabaena, 386

Anabolic interconversions, 117

Anabolic reactions/pathways

defined, 32

linkage and integration with catabolism, 116–118

photosynthesis (see Photosynthesis)

regulation by repressible systems, 219

Anacharis, 120

Anaerobic ATP production, 617

Anaerobic catabolism, 115–116

Anaerobic glycolysis, 617

Anaerobic metabolism

defined, 3

in the evolution of life, 3

prokaryotes, 394

Anal fins, 503

Ananas comosus, 444

Anaphase

meiosis I, 141

meiosis II, 142

mitosis, 135, 136, 137, 141

Ancestral states, reconstruction, 325, 336–337, 341

Ancestral trait, 328

Anchor cell, 281

Anchored membrane proteins, 83, 85

Andersson, Malte, 307

Androctonus, 492

Androgens, 744, 746, 747

Anemia, 196, 202

Anemone, 775

Anemonefish, 775

Anencephaly, 798

Aneuploidy, 145, 228

Anfinsen, Christian, 48

Angel insects, 495

Angiosperm sexual reproduction

double fertilization, 577

female gametophyte, 575

flower morphology, 574–575

male gametophyte, 575–576

mechanisms to prevent inbreeding, 576

overview, 574, 575

partial reproductive isolation in Phlox drummondii, 346–347

phylogenetic analyses of fertilization mechanisms, 336, 337

poinsettias, 573

transition to flowering, 579–585 (see also Flowering)

Angiosperms

asexual reproduction, 585–587

behavioral isolation and, 352, 353

characteristics of, 424

coevolution with animals, 441–442

in the evolution of plants, 422

flower morphology and evolution, 439–441

fruits, 443–444

life cycle, 442–443

mechanical isolation, 351

phylogenetic analyses of fertilization mechanisms, 336, 337

phylogenetic relationships, 445–447

postzygotic isolating mechanisms, 353–354

shared derived traits, 439

symbiosis with nitrogen-fixing bacteria, 373

See also Plant body

Angraecum sesquipedale, 420

Animal behavior

adjustments of, 828

effects of learning and development on, 830–832

evolution of, 829

impact on ecological communities and structures, 827, 841–842

integration with the rest of function, 832–834

navigation and orientation, 834–838

neural basis of, 828

phylogenetic analyses and, 331

the problem of determinism, 829–830

regulation of body temperature, 613

schooling, 827, 843

sexual, 774

social behavior, 839–841

Animal cells

cell junctions, 78–79

cytokinesis, 135, 137

extracellular matrix, 77–78

structure of, 66

Animal cloning, 276, 277

Animal communication

I-3

body size and, 833

honey bee waggle dance, 837

Animal defense systems

adaptive defenses and the adaptive immune response, 810, 811, 815–818 (see also Adaptive immune response)

flu viruses and, 298, 323

innate defenses, 810, 812–814

types of responses to pathogens, 810

Animal development

cleavage, 790–794

direct and indirect development, 804–805

egg and sperm contributions to the zygote, 788

establishment of polarity, 788–789

extraembryonic membranes, 802–804

gastrulation, 794–797

holoprosencephaly, 787, 806

mosaic and regulative development, 791–792

organogenesis and neurulation in chordates, 797–801

Animal groups

Bilateria, 475

cnidarians, 478–480

ctenophores, 477–478

deuterostomes, 497–504 (see also Vertebrates)

eumetazoans, 475

placozoans, 478

protostomes, 480–490

sponges, 475–477

summary of living members of major groups, 476

Animal hemisphere, 789, 792, 794

Animal hormones

compared to plant hormones, 557

function in endocrine control, 735–736

major groups and their actions, 737, 738, 744

regulation of appetite and the processing of meals, 639–640

regulation of physiological systems in mammals, 744–747

regulation of the mammalian reproductive system, 776–781, 784

See also Endocrine system; individual hormones

Animal nutrition

animal–microbe symbioses and, 630–632, 641

essential nutrients, 627–628, 629

food provides energy and chemical building blocks, 625–629

nutrient deficiencies, 628–629

regulation of meal processing, 639–641

relationship of food value to digestive abilities, 632–635 (see also Digestion; Digestive systems)

study of, 624

ways of acquiring food, 629–630

See also Eating; Food

“Animal pole,” 280

Animal reproduction

accessory reproductive organs, 770

advantages and disadvantages of sexual reproduction, 769–770

asexual, 769, 770

contraceptive methods, 781–782

embryonic diapause, 782–783

external and internal fertilization, 773–774

gametogenesis, 771–773

overview, 769

primary reproductive organs, 770

reproductive characteristics of rabbits, 768

seasonal reproductive cycles, 784

secondary sexual characteristics, 770–771

semelparity and iteroparity, 783–784

sex changes, 775, 776

sex determination, 774–775

Animals

coevolution with plants, 411–442

control mechanisms, 619–622

eating to obtain energy and chemical building blocks, 605–606

energy needs, 607–609

evidence for the monophyly of, 470–471

fluid compartments, 615–616

general characteristics, 470

homeostasis, 610

homeotherms (see Homeotherms/Homeothermy)

internal and external environments, 609

levels of organization within, 616–617

phenotypic plasticity, 618–619

phylogenetic tree, 470

poikilotherms, 610–612, 613

regulation of meal processing in, 639–641 (see also Animal nutrition)

regulators and conformers, 609–610

undiscovered living species, 469, 517–518

Anions, 24–25

Annelids

key features, 484–485

major subgroups, 476

segmentation, 474, 475, 484

Annual rings, 534

Annuals, 579, 597

Anodorhynchus hyacinthinus, 894

Anomalocaris canadensis, 369

Anopheles, 416

Anoxia, 925

Anser anser, 830–831

Ant lions, 495

Antagonistic muscle pairs, 689, 690, 727

Antagonists, of receptors, 97

Antarctic biogeographic region, 858, 859

Antarctic fur seals, 782–783

Antarctic Ocean, 362

Anteaters, 514

Antelopes, 827, 840

Antennae, 474, 717

Antennapedia gene, 287, 288, 290

Anterior, 473

Anterior pituitary gland

defined, 740

major hormones and their actions, 741, 744

regulation of hormones secreted by, 741–742, 743

regulation of mammalian reproduction, 776, 779

regulation of sexual development, 747

Antheridium, 427

Anthers, 439

Anthocerophyta, 424

Anthoceros, 426

Anthocyanins, 73

Anthozoans, 478, 480

Anthrax, 384, 394

Anthropocene, 861–862

Anthropoids, 515

Antibiotic resistance

evolution of as a public health problem, 168–169, 467–468

“Methicillin resistant S. aureus”, 194, 213

Antibiotic resistance genes, 383

Antibiotics

effect on bacterial cell walls, 380–381

fungi and, 450, 468

phage therapy as an alternative, 399

from Streptomyces, 385

Antibodies

activation of defense mechanisms, 821–822

in the adaptive immune response, 810, 815–816

antigen binding, 819–820

defined, 810

mechanisms of diversity, 820–821

production by plasma cells, 819

specificity, 816

structure of, 819

See also Immunoglobulins

Anticoagulants, 37

Anticodon, 206–207

Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

actions of, 744

functions, 741

half-life, 739

urine formation and, 762–763, 764

Antidiuretic hormones, in insects, 747

Antifreeze proteins, 600

Antigenic determinants, 816

Antigens

binding by T cell receptors, 822, 823

binding to antibodies, 819–820

presentation by macrophages and dendritic cells, 817

presentation to T cells by MHC proteins, 822–823, 824

specificity, 816

vaccines and, 825–826

Antilocapra americana, 832, 901

Antiparallel strands, of DNA, 176–177

Antipodal cells, 575, 577

Antisense RNA, 263

Antrum, 773

Ants

number of species, 495

orientation by a “polarization compass,” 837

trail following behavior and path integration, 834, 835

See also Leaf-cutter ants

Anurans, 506, 507

Anus, 794, 795, 796

Aorta, 667, 668

Aortic bodies, 659

Aortic valve, 668

Apes, 515

APETALA1 gene, 580, 583

Aphids, 495, 552

Aphotic zone, 857

Apical complex, 406

Apical dominance, 562

Apical hook, 565–566

Apical meristems

of deciduous trees, 533

embryonic, 524

in primary growth, 527, 529, 530

transition to flowering, 579–580

Apical–basal axis, in plants, 523–524

Apicomplexans, 406, 415–416

Apis mellifera. See Honey bees

Aplysia, 713

Apodemes, 690

Apomixis, 585, 586–587

Apoplast, 547, 548, 553

Apoptosis

description of, 146–148

in hindlimb development, 290, 291

initiated by natural killer cells, 813

in morphogenesis, 284

in plant defense responses, 592

telomere length and, 184

Appalachian Mountains, 348

Appendages. See Jointed appendages/limbs

Appetite regulation, 639–640

Apple maggot fly, 350

Apple trees, 350

Aquaporins, 89–90, 546, 762–763, 764

I-4

Aquatic animals

ammonotelic, 755

countercurrent gas exchange, 650–651

water–salt balance in, 756–758

Aquatic biomes, 856–857

Aquatic ecosystems

eutrophication, 923, 925

factors affecting net primary productivity, 919

nitrogen cycling, 923

Aquifex, 385

Aquilegia formosa, 352, 353

Aquilegia pubescens, 352, 353

Arabidopsis

body axes, 523–524

floral organ development, 284, 285

florigen and flowering, 582, 583

genome characteristics, 244, 245

LEAFY mutant, 584

as a model organism, 6

photoreceptors, 568

phytochrome-mediated gene transcription, 569–570

vernalization, 584

Arachidonic acid, 57, 58

Arachnids, 492

Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi, 457, 459, 462, 542–543

Arceuthobium americanum, 544

Archaea

genome, 240, 387

key characteristics of, 388–389

principal groups, 388, 389–390

“Strain 121,” 388

Archaea (domain), 5, 370, 380

Archaen eon, 359, 360–361

Archaeopteris, 369

Archaeopteryx, 511

Archegonium, 427

Archenteron, 794, 795, 796, 797

Archosaurs, 336–337, 510–511

Arctic foxes, 674

Arctocephalus gazella, 782–783

Ardipithecines, 515

Arginine, 43

Argogorytes, 351

Argon-40, 358, 359

Aristolochia littoralis, 445

Armadillidium vulgare, 493

Armadillos, 514

ARR protein, 566

Arrow worms, 476, 480

Arteries

in closed circulatory systems, 662

control of blood flow, 663–664

countercurrent heat exchange, 674–675

direction of blood flow in, 665

structure and function, 673

Arterioles

blood pressure and blood flow through, 673–674

regulation of blood flow and, 663–664

structure and function, 663, 673

Arthrobotrys dactyloides, 456

Arthropods

appendages, 488

central nervous system, 724–725

chelicerates, 491–492

coelom, 480

compound eyes, 722

exoskeleton and skeletal muscle, 689–690

hemocyanin, 678

insects, 494–496, 497

key features, 491

leg evolution, 291–292

major subgroups, 476

myriapods, crustaceans, and hexapods, 492–494

open circulatory system, 664

relatives, 491

segmentation, 474, 475

Artificial gene constructs, 262

Artificial selection, 303–304

Asci, 462, 463

Asclepias syriaca, 596–597

Ascoma, 462, 463, 464

Ascomycota, 458, 459, 462–464

Ascopsores, 462, 463

Ascorbic acid, 682

Asexual reproduction

accumulation of deleterious mutations, 319

angiosperms, 585–587

animals, 769, 770

fungi, 458, 459

genetic constancy of offspring, 130

protists, 414

Asian apes, 515

Asian shore crab, 895

Asparagine, 43

Aspartic acid, 43

Aspen trees, 130, 890, 891

Aspergillus, 191

Aspergillus oryzae, 464

Aspergillus tamarii, 464

Aspirin, 37, 57–58

Asterias rubens, 499, 805

Asterozoans, 499

Astral microtubules, 135

Asynchronous muscle, 696

Atacama Desert, 598

Athens, 809

Athletes, muscle cell types and, 693

Atmospheres (atm), 645

Atmospheric circulation patterns, 850–851

Atmospheric gases

carbon dioxide and climate change, 361–362, 916, 927, 928, 932

greenhouse effect, 926–927

Atmospheric oxygen concentration

body size in flying insects and, 357, 365, 366, 374

during the Cambrian, 368

during the Carboniferous and Permian, 357, 373

changes through Earth’s history, 363–366

in the evolution of life, 3–4

during the Mesozoic, 373

during the Phanerozoic, 367

Atmospheric pressure, 545

Atomic number, 19

Atoms

Bohr model, 19–20

chemical bonds and the formation of molecules, 20–26

elements, 19

functional groups, 25–26

structure, 19

ATP production

in anaerobic cellular respiration, 115, 116

animal behavioral specializations and, 832–833

in animal cells, 617

chemiosmosis, 111–113

coupling of NADH oxidation to, 108, 111, 112

oxidative phosphorylation, 111, 112, 113

in photosynthesis, 122, 123

in slow oxidative and fast glycolytic cells, 693

ATP synthase, 111–112, 113

Atrazine, 13, 14, 15

Atria, 667, 668

Atrioventricular node, 669, 670

Atrioventricular valve, 668

Atta cephalotes, 882, 894

Auditory canal, 718

Auditory cortex, 715

Auditory nerve, 718

Auditory systems, 717–718, 719

Austin blind salamander, 507

Australasian biogeographic region, 858, 859

Australia

biogeography, 854, 855, 856

introduction of European rabbits, 768

Australian Dung Beetle Project, 909–910

Australopithecines, 515, 516

Australopithecus afarensis, 515, 516

Autism, 392

Autocrine signals, 95, 96

Autocrines, 736

Autoimmune diseases, 814, 816

Autoimmunity, 816

Autonomic effectors, 725

Autonomic nervous system (ANS)

enteric nervous system, 635, 636, 726

mammalian heartbeat, 670, 671

parasympathetic division, 725, 726

regulation of blood flow, 663–664

sympathetic division, 725, 726, 739

Autophagy, 71

Autopolyploidy, 350

Autosomes, 164

Autotrophs, 124, 538, 606, 889

Auxin

discovery of, 559–60

effects on plant growth and development, 562–563

interactions with cytokinins, 566

molecular mechanisms underlying the actions of, 563–564

polar transport, 561–562

structure and functions, 559

Auxin response element, 262

Avirulence (Avr) genes, 592, 602, 603

Axillary buds, 527

Axis

in the endocrine system, 742–743

See also Polarity

Axon hillocks, 707, 713

Axon terminals, 710

Axons

action potentials and (see Action potentials)

function in nervous control, 735

innervation of muscle fibers, 685, 686

location specificity in the mammalian brain, 729, 730

myelination, 702

neural basis of sensation and, 715

structure and function, 701

B

B cells

functions of, 817–818

humoral immune response and, 817, 819

immune deficiency disorders and, 824

interaction with T-helper cells, 823

mechanisms of antibody diversity, 820–821

production of antibodies in the effector phase, 821–822

B horizon, 540

B lymphocytes

diversity and clonal selection, 816, 817

functions, 811

specificity, 816

Bacillus, 384, 395

Bacillus (bacilli pl.), 381

Bacillus amyloliquifaciens, 254

Bacillus anthracis, 384, 394

Bacillus subtilis, 132

Bacillus thuringiensis, 269, 270, 384

Bacteria

action of antibiotics and, 213

in animal innate defenses, 812

antibiotic resistance, 467–468 (see also Antibiotic resistance)

biofilms, 390–391, 392

biological nitrogen fixation, 542, 543–544

bioluminescence, 378, 387, 399

in bioremediation, 271

chlamydias, 386–387

I-5

classification methods, 380–381

conjugation, 167–168

cyanobacteria, 385–386

drug resistance, 168–169

endosymbiosis in the evolution of eukaryotes, 402, 404

gene transfer by plasmids, 168

genetic transformation, 258

genome characteristics, 244

genomes, 240–243

hadobacteria, 385

high-GC Gram-positives, 384–385

hyperthermophilic, 385

industrial biotechnology and, 253

lateral gene transfer, 319

lateral transfer of antibiotic

resistance genes, 383

low-GC Gram positives, 384, 385

metabolic pathways, 394–395

microbiomes, 391–392

pathogenic, 393–394

proteobacteria, 387, 388

quorum sensing, 378, 391

roles in element cycling, 395–396

spirochetes, 386

sporulation, 220

transformation experiments, 174

Bacteria (domain), 5, 63, 370, 380

Bacterial conjugation, 167–168

Bacterial lipopolysaccharide, 813

Bacteriochlorophyll, 394, 395

Bacteriophage

phage λ, 259–260

phage T2, 174

phage T4, 397

phage T7, 332–334

phage therapy, 399

transformation experiments, 174

Bacteroids, 542

Baker’s yeast, 462, 464

Baldwin, Ian, 595

Bamboo, 585

Bamboo pit viper, 723

BamHI restriction enzyme, 254

Banded iron formations, 364

Banksia coccinea, 447

Banteng, 276

Bar-tailed godwits, 837–838

Bark, 534

Bark beetles, 931

Barklice, 495

Barley, “malting,” 560–561

Barnacles, 493, 494, 887, 888

Barr bodies, 228

Barrel cactus, 532

Barrier contraceptive methods, 781

Barriers to dispersal, 857–858

Basal lamina, 78

Basal metabolic rate (BMR), 609

Base pairs

in DNA, 177

vulnerability to mutation, 190–191

Baseodiscus cingulatus, 483

Bases

base pairing, 38–40, 41

in the structure of nucleic acids, 38

Basidiomata, 463, 464–465

Basidiomycota, 458, 459, 463, 464–465

Basidiospores, 463, 465

Basidium, 463, 465

Basilar membrane, 717–718, 719

Basking shark, 630

Basophils, 811

Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, 454, 455

Bats

key features, 512, 513

number of living species, 514

speciation by centric fusion, 346, 347

wing evolution, 292–293, 328

Bayer company, 37

BD model, of population size, 866–867, 876

Bdelloid rotifers, 482

Beagle (HMS), 299–300

Beal, W. J., 434

Beauveria bassiana, 468

Beavers, 890

Beer, 105, 126

Beer brewing, 560–561

Bees

breathing system, 654

effect of agriculture on diversity of, 914

number of species, 495

See also Bumblebees, Carpenter bees, Honey bees

Beetles

diversity in, 496, 497

grazers of milkweed, 597

number of species, 469, 495

See also Dung beetles

Begging behavior, 828

Behavior. See Animal behavior; Social behavior

Behavioral imprinting, 830–831

Behavioral isolation, 351–352, 353

Behavioral regulation, of body temperature, 613

Belding’s ground squirrel, 839

Belgian Blue cattle, 251

Bengtsson, Jan, 877

Benthic zone, 857

Benzer, Seymour, 207, 829

Benzopyrene, 190, 191

Berthold, Arnold, 733

Bertholletia excelsa, 894

Beta (β) cells, 640

Beta (β) pleated sheet, 44, 46

Beta thalassemia, 202

β-Adrenergic receptors, 739

β-Carotene, 269

β-Catenin, 799

Beyer, Peter, 269

Bicarbonate ions

in blood, 678

in digestion, 637–638, 639

Biceps, 716

Bicoid protein, 286

BIDE model, of population size 876

Bieber, Claudia, 625

Biennials, 579

Bilateral symmetry

ambulacrarians, 498

in animals, 473

Bilaterians, 472, 474–475

Bilayers, structure, 30, 31

Bile, 638, 639

Bile salts, 638

Bill size, effect of disruptive selection on, 312

Bimodal character distribution, 312

Binary fission, 130, 132, 133

Bindin, 353

Binomial nomenclature, 4–5, 338–341

Biochemical systems, enzymes and the regulation of, 53–57

Biocontrol, of mosquitoes, 468

Biofilms, 390–391, 392, 846

Biogenic amines, 711

Biogeochemical cycles

carbon cycle, 924, 925

defined, 920

global climate and, 926–928, 929

impact of human activities on, 921–922, 923, 924–926

interdependence of, 926

nitrogen cycle, 922–923, 924, 925

overview, 920–921

phosphorus cycle, 926

sulfur cycle, 926

water cycle, 921–922

Biogeographic regions, 858–861

Biogeography

barriers to dispersal, 857–858

continental drift and, 858–861

defined, 846

human impact on, 861–862

impact of physical geography on, 854–857

phylogenetics and, 859–861

Bioinformatics, 237

Biological classification, 338–341

Biological clocks, 620–622, 722

Biological determinism, 829–830

Biological membranes

active transport, 91–92

components and properties of, 83–87

dynamic nature of, 86–87

fluid mosaic model, 83

fluidity, 84–85

movement of macromolecules via vesicles, 93–95

passive transport across, 87–91

selective permeability, 87

thickness, 84

See also Cell membrane(s)

Biological nitrogen fixation, 542, 543–544

Biological organization

characteristics of biological systems, 7–8

chemical energy inputs to maintain, 606–607

hierarchical levels of, 6–7

systems analysis, 8–9

Biological species concept, 344–345

Biological systems, 7–9 (see also Systems, Systems analysis)

Bioluminescence, 378, 387, 399, 418

Bioluminescent proteins, 387

Biomass, 903, 904

Biomes

aquatic, 856–857

defined, 854

terrestrial, 854–856

Bioremediation, 113, 271, 466

See also Phytoremediation

Biosphere, 7, 846, 920

Biota, 367

Biotechnology

applications, 265–270

artificial gene constructs, 262

bioremediation, 271

DNA microarrays and patterns of gene expression, 264–265

gene inactivation by homologous recombination, 262–263

genomic libraries and cDNA libraries, 261–262

historical overview, 253

methods with recombinant DNA, 254–258

public concerns about, 270

RNA interference, 263–264

synthetic DNA, 262

transformation, 258–261

Biotic components of environment, 846

Biotic interchange, 859, 861

Biotin, 52, 628

Bipalium everetti, 481

Bipedal locomotion, 516

Bipolar cells, 720, 721

Birch, Charles, 872

Birds

accessory reproductive organs, 770

action of prolactin, 739

adjustments of migratory behavior, 828

begging behavior, 828

breathing system, 652–653

circulatory system, 666

effect of disruptive selection on bill size, 312

evolution, 508, 510, 511

excretion of nitrogenous wastes, 756

foot webbing in development, 290, 291

forebrain evolution, 727–728

foregut fermentation, 316

gastrulation, 795, 796

key features, 510

learning and behavior, 831

major groups, 511

mechanisms of long-distance migrations, 837–838

metabolic rate, 511

I-6

nephrons and urine formation, 764

orientation by the Earth’s magnetic field, 837

perception of ultraviolet wavelengths, 723

relationship between metabolic rate and speed of flight, 608–609

salt glands, 754–755

species and diversity, 511, 512

sperm transfer in, 774

thermoregulation, 613–614

urine/plasma ratio, 754

wing evolution, 292–293, 328

Birth contractions, 620, 780

Birth weight, effect of stabilizing selection on, 311

Bison bison, 889

1,3-Bisphosphoglycerate, 110

Bithorax gene, 287, 288

Bivalents, 142, 143–144

Bivalves, 486, 487

Black-bellied seedcrackers, 312

“Black carbon,” 928

Black-legged ticks

life history, 867–868

life-history tradeoffs, 870

Lyme disease and, 864, 878, 880

Black spruce, 436

Black stem rust, 454

“Black urine,” 195

Blackberry, 444

Blackeye goby, 776

Bladders

swim bladders, 504

urinary, 695, 753

Blade, 531

Blastocladiomycota, 459

Blastocoel, 792, 794, 797

Blastocyst, 279, 793, 794

Blastocysts

implantation in the uterus, 777, 793, 794

secretion of chorionic gonadotropin in primates, 780

Blastodisc, 792

Blastomeres

defined, 790

in mosaic and regulative development, 791–792

types of cleavage, 790–791, 792–793

Blastopore, 472, 794–795

Blastulas

cell fates, 275

defined, 790

gastrulation in sea urchins, 794, 795

mosaic and regulative development, 791–792

types of cleavage, 790–791, 793

Blattodea, 495

Blending inheritance, 151

Bleu cheese, 464

Blood

complement proteins, 813

components of, 677

hormone concentration, 739–740

insulin and glucagon regulation of nutrient levels in, 640–641

respiratory gases and the control of breathing, 656, 658–659

transport of respiratory gases, 677–678

Blood clotting

anticoagulants, 37

hemophilia, 150

Blood flow

arteriolar control of, 663–664

blood pressure and the linear velocity of movement through the vascular system, 673–674

closed circulatory systems, 662–664

to the fetus, 780

fluid loss in capillaries, 675–676

mammalian cardiac cycle, 667–668

open circulatory systems, 664, 665

Blood pH, negative-feedback control of breathing, 656, 657, 659

Blood plasma

fluid compartments of the body and, 615

homeostasis, 610

regulation of composition and volume by the kidneys, 753

urine/plasma ratios, 753–754

urine produced from by the kidneys, 752–753, 760–764, 765

water–salt balance and, 751

Blood pressure

arterial elasticity and, 673

description of, 668

the linear velocity of movement through the vascular system and, 673–674

sepsis and, 814

Blood vessels

blood pressure and linear velocity of flow through, 673–674

closed circulatory systems, 662–664

countercurrent heat exchange, 674–675

direction of blood flow in, 665

fluid loss in capillaries, 675–676

major vessels in human circulation, 668

structure of, 673

systemic and breathing-organ circuits, 665–667

types and functions of, 673

See also individual vessel types

Blue crabs, 758, 782

Blue-green bacteria. See Cyanobacteria

Blue-light receptors, 568

Blue mussels, 895

Blue spiny lizards, 871, 872

Body cavities, 473, 474

Body fluids

properties of, 752

regulation by the kidneys, 752–755

Body insulation, 614

Body plans

appendages, 474

basic developmental patterns, 471–473

body cavity, 473

crustacean, 494

insect, 494

key features, 472–473

nervous systems, 474–475

origin and evolution of, 470–475

plant body (see Plant body)

protostomes, 480

segmentation, 473–474, 475

symmetry, 473

vertebrates, 501, 502

Body segmentation

in animal development, 800, 801

in fruit flies, 285–288

Body size

animal behavior and, 833, 834

effect of atmospheric oxygen concentrations on, 357, 365, 366, 374

metabolic rate and, 609

Body temperature

homeotherms, 610–611, 612–614

poikilotherms, 611–612, 613

of spiny lizard, 871

Bohemian waxwings, 723

Bohr model, 19–20

Bombina bombina, 354–355

Bombina variegata, 354–355

Bombus, 842

Bombycilla garrulus, 723

Bombyx, 782

Bone, 688–689

Bone marrow, multipotent stem cells, 278–279

Bone morphogenetic protein 4 (BMP4), 290, 291, 799

Bony fishes, hyposmotic regulators, 756–757

Booklice, 495

Boreal forest, 855

Borlaug, Norman, 555, 571

Borlaug Global Rust Initiative, 589

Borrelia, 864, 880

Borthwick, Harry, 569

Bottlenosed dolphins, 513

Botulism, 394

Boutons, 710

Bovine/porcine somatotropin, 267

Bowman’s capsule, 760–761, 765

Boyer, Herbert, 257

Brachiopods, 476, 480–481, 483

Brachystola magna, 497

Bracket fungi, 465

Brain

basis of animal behavior, 828

basis of sensation, 715

caffeine’s effects on, 102–103

in the central nervous system, 724, 724

control of breathing rhythm, 656, 657, 659

forebrain evolution in vertebrates, 727–728

glial cells, 701

localized function and mapped regions in mammals, 728–730, 731

neurulation, 797–800, 801

tracts, 701

Brain imaging, 729

Brain maps, 729, 730, 731

Brain size

evolution in, 727–728

in human evolution, 516

Brassica napus, 566

Brassica oleracea, 303–304, 535

Brassinosteroids, 559, 566

Brazil nuts, 894

BRCA1 gene, 162

Bread, 126

Breast cancer, 148, 162

Breast cancer therapy, “gene expression signatures” and, 264–265

Breathing

in animals without breathing organs, 648–649

bird lungs, 652–653

countercurrent gas exchange in gills, 650–651

defined, 646

at high elevations, 643

insect tracheal breathing systems, 653–654

with lungs or gills, 646–647

mammalian breathing system, 654–659

tidally ventilated lungs, 651–652

See also Respiratory gas exchange

Breathing-organ circuit

in amphibians and non-avian reptiles, 666–667

defined, 665

in fish, 665–666

in mammals and birds, 666

Breathing organs

bird lungs, 652–653

cocurrent and countercurrent gas exchange systems, 649–651

defined, 665

insect tracheal breathing systems, 653–654

mammalian breathing system, 654–659

structure and function of lungs and gills, 646, 647 (see also Gills; Lungs)

surface area of gas exchange membranes, 649

tidally ventilated lungs, 651–652

ventilation, 646–647

I-7

Breathing rhythm, 656, 657

Breeding seasons, 351, 352

Brevipalpus phoenicis, 492

Brewer’s yeast, 462, 464

Briareum, 417

Bristlecone pine, 437

Brittle stars, 499

Broca’s area, 728, 730, 828

Broccoli, 303

Bronchi, 654, 655

Brown, Patrick, 539

Brown adipose tissue, 614, 618

Brown algae, 408, 409

Brown-headed cowbirds, 884

Brown molds, 464

Brown surgeonfish, 505

Brussels sprouts, 303

Bryonia dioica, 532

Bryony vine, 532

Bryophyta, 424

Bryozoans, 476, 480–481, 481

Bt protein, 269, 270

Bubonic plague, 387, 394

Bud primordia, 530

Budding

asexual reproduction in animals, 769, 770

protists, 414

sac fungus yeasts, 464

Buds, 522

Bufo periglenes, 507

Bulbourethral glands, 780

Bulbs, 585

Bulk flow, 646

Bulk solutions, 702

Bumblebees, 842, 891

Burgess Shale fossils, 368

Bushmonkey flower, 440–441, 442

Butterflies

diversity in, 496, 497

heterozygote advantage, 316–317

interactions with plants, 894, 895

latitudinal gradient in species richness, 907

number of species, 495

See also Edith’s checkerspot butterfly

C

C horizon, 540

Cabbage, 303

Cacti, 447, 598

Cactus finch, 868, 869

Caddisflies, 495, 497

Cadmium-tolerant plants, 601–602

Caecilians, 506, 507

Caenorhabditis elegans

discovery of microRNAs, 230

genome characteristics, 244–245

induction during vulval development, 281–282

as a model organism, 488

programmed cell death during morphogenesis, 284

zygote polarity, 280

Caffeine, 82, 102–103

Caiman crocodilus, 510

Caimans, 510

Calcareous sponges, 476, 477

Calcitonin, 744

Calcium/Calcium ions

in animal nutrition, 629, 682

bone and, 688, 689

in muscle contraction, 686, 687, 688

Calcium channels, at neuromuscular junctions, 710

Calcium oxalate, 593

Calcium phosphate, 688

California plantain, 878

Callinectes sapidus, 758, 782

Calories, 625, 626

Calvin, Melvin, 124

Calvin cycle, 124, 125

Camalexin, 591

“Cambrian explosion,” 368

Cambrian period, 360–361, 368, 369

Camembert cheese, 464

cAMP phosphodiesterase, 102, 103

cAMP response element (CRE), 232

Canavanine, 593, 596

Cancer therapies

chemotherapy, 148–149

“gene expression signatures” and, 264–265

hematopoietic stem cell transplantation, 278–279

Cancers

breast cancer, 148, 162

carcinogens and, 191

cell cycle regulation and, 148

cell division and, 129

cervical cancer, 129, 148

chemotherapy, 148–149

RNA retroviruses and, 398

Candida albicans, 454

Canis lupus, 890–891

Canis lupus familiaris. See Dogs

Cannon, Walter, 610

5’ Cap, 202, 230

Cape anteater, 340

Capillaries

blood pressure and blood flow through, 673–674

fluid loss in, 675–676

regulation of blood flow and, 663–664

structure and function, 663, 673

Capitellids, 805

Capsules, 64–65

Carapace, 494

Carbapenems, 169

Carbohydrases, 635

Carbohydrates

aerobic catabolism, 111–114

anaerobic catabolism, 115–116

defined, 27

digestion, 635–636, 638

as food molecules, 626

formation in photosynthesis, 119, 124–125

membrane carbohydrates, 83, 86

monosaccharides, 27

polysaccharides, 27–28

structure and function, 26, 27

Carbon

covalent bonding capacity, 22

electronegativity, 23

global cycle, 924–926

isotopes, 19

Carbon-14, 358

Carbon cycle, 924–926

Carbon dioxide

blood transport, 677

in the carbon cycle, 924, 925, 926

fixation in photosynthesis, 119, 124–125

gas exchange in plants, 550–551

global warming and climate change, 361–362, 916, 927, 928, 932

released in aerobic cellular respiration, 109

as a respiratory gas, 644 (see also Respiratory gases)

Carbon-fixation reactions, 119, 124–125

Carbonate, 924

Carbonic acid, 658–659

Carboniferous period

atmospheric oxygen levels, 365

flying insects, 357

history of life during, 372

key events during, 360–361

Carboxyl group

in amino acids, 42–43

in fatty acids, 29

structure and properties, 25

Carboxypeptidase B, 633, 634

Carcharodon carcharis, 504

Carcinogens, 191

Carcinus maenas, 805, 895

Cardiac cycle, 667–668

Cardiac ganglion, 671, 672

Cardiac muscle, 667, 695

See also Myocardium

Cardiac output, 667

Carduus nutans, 892

Caretta caretta, 838

Carnivores, 514, 889–890

Carnivorous plants, 544, 545

β-Carotene, 269

Carotid bodies, 659

Carpels

evolution, 440

in flower morphology, 574

function, 439

in pollination, 434

Carpenter bees, 892, 894

Carr, Archie, 838

Carrier proteins

for hormones, 740

of membranes, 89, 90, 91

Carrots, 275, 532

Carrying capacity

changes in, 874–876

intraspecific competition and an evolutionary increase in, 892, 893

Cartilage, 689

Cartilaginous fishes, 504

Casparian strip, 547–548

Caspases, 147, 148, 284

Cassowaries, 511

Castanea dentata, 891

Castor canadensis, 890

Castrati, 733

Castration, 733

Catabolic interconversions, 116–117

Catabolic reactions/pathways

aerobic catabolism of carbohydrates, 109–114

anaerobic catabolism of carbohydrates, 115–116

defined, 32

and flow of energy through communities, 903

linkage and integration with anabolism, 116–118

regulation by inducible systems, 219

in the release and reuse of cellular energy, 108

Cataglyphis, 834, 835, 837

Catalysts, 49

See also Enzymes

Catasetum, 420

Catasetum macrocarpum, 447–448

Catch, 696

Catch muscle, 696

β-Catenin, 799

Cations, 24–25

Cats

“point restriction” coat patterns, 160–162

tortoiseshell coat, 228

Cattle

ecological impact of grazing, 845, 862–863

effect of directional selection on horns, 311–312

evolution of foregut fermentation in, 315–316

microbiome, 392

pharming, 266–267

Caudal fins, 503, 504

Cauliflower, 303

Cave-dwelling fish, 294

CD4 receptor, 225

cDNA. See Complementary DNA

cDNA libraries, 261–262

CED-4, CED-5, CED-9 proteins, 284

Celestial navigation, 831

Cell body, of neurons, 701, 712

Cell cycle

cancer and, 148

chromosome segregation, 135, 136–137

cytokinesis, 135–137

DNA content during, 173

overview of the stages in, 133–134, 135, 136–137

prophase, 134–135

regulation of, 138–140

Cell cycle checkpoints, 139

Cell death

apoptosis, 146–148

necrosis, 146

Cell differentiation

I-8

changes in gene expression and, 279–282

differential gene transcription and, 282

reversibility, 275–276, 277

role of transcription factors in, 223–224

Cell division

in asexual reproduction, 130

binary fission, 130, 132, 133

cancer and, 129

defined, 130

meiosis, 140–146

mitosis and cytokinesis, 133–137

overview of necessary events in, 132

regulation of, 138–140

in sexual reproduction by meiosis, 130–131

Cell fates

changes in gene expression underlie determination and differentiation, 279–282

progressive restriction during development, 275

Cell-free extracts, 62

Cell junctions, 78–79

Cell membrane(s)

action potentials, 685, 700

of the archaea, 388–389

caffeine and, 82

depolarization and hyperpolarization, 706

eukaryotic cells, 66, 67

function in animals, 616

membrane potentials, 702–706

in plant induced defenses, 594

prokaryotic cells, 64

of sensory receptor cells, 715

signal transduction pathways and cell signaling, 95–98 (see also Signal transduction pathways)

signaling in plant induced defenses, 594

structure and function, 62–63

See also Biological membranes

Cell migrations, gastrulation, 794–797

Cell plate, 136, 137

Cell potency, 275

Cell signaling

chemical signals, 95–96

overview, 95

receptors, 96–98

types of cellular responses to signals, 99

See also Signal transduction pathways

Cell theory, 61

Cell walls

bacterial, 380–381

plant cells, 67, 77 (see also Plant cell walls)

plant development and, 522–523

prokaryotic cells, 64–65

Cells

cell size and the surface area-to-volume ratio, 61–62

cell theory, 61

cellular specialization in the evolution of life, 4

extracellular structures, 77–79

features of eukaryotic cells, 63, 65–73 (see also Eukaryotic cells)

features of prokaryotic cells, 63–65 (see also Prokaryotes)

fossilized, 80

methods of studying, 62, 63

in the origin and evolution of life, 2–3

protocells, 80

structure and function of the cell membrane, 62–63 (see also Cell membrane[s])

synthetic, 60

See also Animal cells; Plant cells

Cellular immune response

AIDS and, 824–825

antigen binding to T cell receptors, 822, 823

antigen presentation to T cells by MHC proteins, 822–823, 824

death of the targeted cell, 823–824

effector T cells in, 822

phases of, 817–818

suppression by regulatory T cells, 824

Cellular respiration

aerobic, 109–114

anaerobic, 115–116

linkage to photosynthesis, 118

Cellular slime molds, 413–414

Cellular specialization, in the evolution of life, 4

Cellular therapy, expression of transcription factors and, 223–224

Cellulose, 28

Cement manufacture, 928, 932

Cenozoic era, 360–361, 373–374

Centaurea solstitialis, 874, 891

Centipedes, 493

Central nervous system (CNS)

in arthropods, 724–725

bilaterians, 474–475

defined, 724

neurosecretory cells, 736–737

spinal reflexes, 726–727

in vertebrates, 724, 724

Central sulcus, 728

Centralization, 723–724

Centrifugation, 62, 63

Centrioles, 66, 135, 789

Centromeres

in meiosis, 141, 142

in mitosis, 134, 137, 141

Centrosomes

description of, 135

in mitosis, 135, 136

role in animal development, 788

Cephalization, 473, 724

Cephalopods, 486, 487

Cercozoans, 409

Cerebellum, 728

Cerebral cortex, 728–730, 731

Cerebral hemispheres

evolution in vertebrates, 727–728

localized function and mapped regions in mammals, 728–730, 731

Cervical cancer, 129, 148

Cervix, 777

Cervus canadensis, 889, 890–891

Cervus elaphus, 833

Cetaceans, 514

Cetartiodactyla, 514

Cetonia aurata, 497

Cetorhinus maximus, 630

Chaetodon semilarvatus, 827

Chagas’ disease, 411

Chain, Ernst, 450

Chakrabarty, Ananda, 253

Chalfie, Martin, 325

Channel proteins, 89–90, 703

“Chaos” amoeba, 412

Chara vulgaris, 423

Characters

ancestral and derived traits, 328

defined, 151

evolutionary reversals, 328

heritability, 162

Chargaff, Erwin, 176

Chargaff’s rule, 176, 177

Chasmosaurus belli, 371

Cheese, 464, 465

Cheetahs, 832

Chelicerae, 491

Chelicerates, 476, 491–492, 518

Chelonoidis nigra abingdonii, 509

Chemical bonds

covalent, 20–23

defined, 20

Chemical building blocks

animals’ need for, 606–607

of carbohydrates, 27

food as source of, 627–629

of lipids, 29

of nucleic acids, 38, 179

of proteins, 43

See also Matter; Matter as related to energy

Chemical energy

animal need for, 606–607

animal storage compounds, 626–627

flow through communities, 904

from food, 625–626

Chemical reactions

catalyzed, 49–50

exergonic and endergonic, 106

metabolism and, 32

overview, 31

Chemical signals/signaling

in nervous and endocrine control, 734–736

in plant induced defenses, 594

scales of distance and, 735–736

types of, 95–96

Chemical synapses

description of, 709–710

neuromuscular junctions, 710–711

Chemical weathering, 540

Chemiosmosis, 111–113, 114

Chemoautotrophs, 394, 395, 396, 854, 890, 919

Chemoheterotrophs, 394, 395

Chemoreceptors, 716–717

Chemotherapy, 148–149

Chernobyl nuclear accident, 602

Chestnut, 891

Chestnut blight, 464

Chiasmata, 142, 144

Chickens, loss of foot webbing in development, 290, 291

Chilling injury, 600

Chimaeras, 504

Chimpanzees

evolutionary relationship to humans, 42

immunodeficiency viruses, 334, 335

in primate evolution, 515

skull growth, 516, 517

Chipmunks, 864

Chiroptera, 514

Chitin, 488

Chitinase, 591

Chitons, 485, 486

Chlamydia psittaci, 387

Chlamydias, 386–387

Chlamys varia, 486

Chlorella, 6

Chloride ions

guard cell function in plants, 551

removal during urine formation, 762–763

Chlorine, electronegativity, 23

Chlorocebus, 839, 840

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), 191

Chlorophyll

absorption and action spectra, 120

absorption of light, 121–122

light-harvesting complexes, 121

and NPP maps, 917

photosystems I and II, 122, 123

structure, 120–121

Chlorophyll a, 385, 421

Chlorophyll α, 120–121

Chlorophyll β, 120–121

Chlorophytes, 421, 422, 423

Chloroplasts

carbon-fixation reactions, 119, 124–125

chemiosmosis in, 113

endosymbiosis in the evolution of, 385, 402, 404–405

in the evolution of eukaryotic cells, 4

genetic material and cytoplasmic inheritance, 166–167

photosystem organization and function, 121–123

structure and function, 67, 72

Choanocytes, 471, 476

Choanoflagellates, 471, 472

Cholecalciferol, 682

Cholecystokinin (CCK), 639

I-9

Cholera, 387, 394, 638–639

Cholesterol

in membranes, 83, 84

steroid hormones and, 738

uptake by receptor endocytosis, 94–95

Chondrichthyans, 503–504

Chordates

key features, 500

lancelets and tunicates, 500–501

major subgroups, 476

organogenesis and neurulation in, 797–801

See also Vertebrates

Chordin, 799

Chorioallantoic membrane, 803

Chorioallantoic placenta, 803

Chorion, 803

Chorionic gonadotropin (CG), 780

Chorionic villus, 794

Chromatids

distinguished from chromosomes, 135

See also Sister chromatids

Chromatin

euchromatin and heterochromatin, 228

in the eukaryotic nucleus, 68

remodeling, 226–227

Chromium, 629

Chromodoris kuniei, 487

Chromoplasts, 72

Chromosomal rearrangements, 313

“Chromosomal theory of inheritance,” 173

Chromosomes

centric fusion and speciation in bats, 346, 347

condensation, 134–135

crossing over and independent assortment in meiosis, 140, 142–145

distinguished from chromatids, 135

in the eukaryotic nucleus, 68

gene locus, 162

genetic linkage and recombination, 162–164

homologous pairs, 131 (see also Homologous pairs)

identified as DNA, 173

meiotic errors, 145–146

mutations, 188–189

in organelles, 166–167

origins of replication, 180, 181 (see also DNA replication)

reduction of chromosome number in meiosis, 140, 141, 142

replication and segregation in binary fission, 132, 133

replication and segregation in mitosis, 133–135, 136–137

in sexual reproduction, 130, 131, 132

spatial organization of developmental genes, 289

telomeres, 183–184

Chthamalus stellatus, 887, 888

Chymotrypsin, 633, 634

Chytridiomycota, 459

Chytrids

characteristics of, 460

life cycle, 461

major groups, 459

in the phylogeny of the fungi, 458

Cicadas, 495, 868

Cichlids, 343, 352

Cigarette smoke, 190, 191

Cilia

lophotrochozoans, 481

structure and function, 74–75

Ciliates, 406–407

Cingulata, 514

Circadian clocks, 620–622, 722, 836

Circadian rhythms, entrainment in plants, 570

Circannual clocks, 621, 622, 784

Circulatory systems

in amphibians and non-reptile birds, 666–667

animal need for oxygen transport, 617

closed systems, 662–664

components and function of, 662

coronary circulatory system, 670–671

in fish, 661, 665–666

hearts, 667–672 (see also Hearts)

lymphatic system, 676

in mammals and birds, 666

open systems, 664, 665

systemic and breathing-organ circuits, 665

transport of respiratory gases, 677–678

vascular system, 673–676

Circumpolar Current, 852

Cirsium canescens, 892

Cirsium undulatum, 892

Cisternae, 70

Citrate, 118

Citric acid cycle, 109, 111, 117

Clade, 327

Cladonia subtenuis, 456

Clam worms, 475

Clams

catch muscle, 696

description of, 487

hydrostatic skeleton, 691

Class I MHC proteins, 822–823, 824

Class II MHC proteins, 822–823, 824

Classes, 339

Clathrin, 94

Clavelina dellavallei, 501

Clay, 540

Cleavage

effects of yolk on, 792

in placental mammals, 792–793

types of, 790–791

Climate

atmospheric circulation patterns and, 850–851

biogeochemical cycles and, 926–928, 929

climate diagrams, 853

defined, 362, 849

ocean circulation patterns and, 851–852

and terrestrial biomes, 854–856

variation in solar energy input and, 849, 850

Climate change

addressing through science and international cooperation, 931–932

atmospheric carbon dioxide and, 916, 927, 928, 928, 932

from burning fossil fuels, 361–362

changes in species composition and, 902, 903

impact on community composition, 930–931

impact on life histories and species interactions, 929–930, 931

impact on spiny lizards, 871, 872

impact on the global water cycle, 922

impact on weather events, 931

role of human activities in, 928

through Earth’s history, 361–362

See also Global warming

Clitoris, 746

“Cloacal kiss,” 774

Clonal lineages, 414

Clonal selection, 816, 817

Clones, asexual reproduction and, 130, 585–587

Cloning

of animals, 276, 277

of plants, 275–276

Closed circulatory systems, 662–664

Closed systems, 876, 920–921

Clostridium, 384

Clostridium acetylbutylicum, 253

Clostridium botulinum, 394

Clostridium tetani, 394

Clotting factor, 150

Clotting factor gene, 169

Club fungi, 453

characteristics of, 459, 462

sexual reproduction, 463, 464–465

Club mosses, 429, 431

Cnidarians

key features of, 476, 478–480

nerve nets, 723

CO gene, 582, 583

Coal

formation of, 429

See also Fossil fuels

Coat color

epistasis in dogs, 160, 161

hierarchy of dominance in rabbits, 158–159

“point restriction” patterns, 160–162

Coated pits, 94

Cobalamin, 628

Cobalt, 629

Cocaine, 454

Coccus (cocci pl.), 381

Cochlea, 717–718, 719

Cockroaches, 495

Cocoa, 454

Cocurrent gas exchange, 649–650

Cocurrent systems, 649

Coding regions, 199–201

Coding strand, in DNA expression, 197

CODIS database, 250

Codominance, 159–160

Codons

binding of anticodon to, 206–207

genetic code, 203–206

Coelacanths, 505

Coelom

in arthropods and mollusks, 480

in coelomate animals, 473, 474

formation of, 795, 796

peritoneal cavity and, 800

in protostomes, 480

Coelomates, 473, 474

Coenocyte, 412

Coenocytic hyphae, 451

Coenzyme A (CoA), 52, 110–111

Coenzymes

as enzyme cofactors, 52

linkage of cellular respiration to photosynthesis, 118

See also Adenosine triphosphate; Flavin adenine dinucleotide; Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide

Coevolution, plant–animal interactions, 441–442, 894, 895 (see also Reciprocal adaptations)

Coexistence of interacting species. See Rarity advantage; Species coexistence

Cofactors, of enzymes, 52

Coffea arabica, 898, 914

Coffea canephora, 898

Coffea eugenioides, 898

Coffee

caffeine and, 82

cultivation of, 898, 900, 914

Coffroth, Mary Alice, 417

Cohen, Stanley, 257

Cohesion, 23–24

Cold-hardening, 600

Coleochaete, 423

Coleochaetophytes, 421, 422, 423

Coleoptera, 495

Coleoptiles, 557, 561–562

Colias, 316–317

Colistin, 169

Collagen, 77, 78, 688

Collar, of hemichordates, 499, 500

Collecting ducts, 763–764, 765

Collenchyma, 525

Colon, 638–639

Colonial animals, 481

I-10

Colonization (see also Immigration)

conserving community diversity and, 911–912

by Edith’s checkerspot butterfly, 865

impact on ecological communities, 900–901

theory of island biogeography, 907

Colony-stimulating factor, 267

Color blindness, red–green, 166

Colugos, 514

Columba livia, 304

Columbines, 352, 353

Comanthina schlegeli, 499

Comb jellies, 477–478

Combined DNA Index System (CODIS) database, 250

Commensalism

defined, 883

effect on fitness, 883, 884

effect on species, 886

Common cactus finch, 868, 869

Common carotid artery, 668

Common iliac artery and vein, 668

Communities

animal behavior and, 827

assembly of, 899–900

coffee cultivation and, 898, 900, 914

defined, 846, 899

effects of structure on function, 903–906

goods and services provided by, 909–910

in the hierarchical structure of ecosystems, 7

impact of global climate change on community composition, 930–931

issues in delineating, 899

turnover in species composition, 900–903

Community function

conservation strategies, 909–913

energy flux and, 903–904

species diversity and, 904–906

Companion cells, 526

Comparative biology, phylogenetic trees and, 327–328

Comparative experiments, 13, 15

Comparative genomics

overview, 238

prokaryotes, 240–241

Compartments

in biogeochemical cycles (see Biogeochemical cycles)

in ecosystems, 920

fluid compartments in the animal body, 615–616

Competition

effects on fitness, 883

See also Interspecific competition; Intraspecific competition

Competitive inhibitors, 54, 55

Complement proteins, 813, 822

Complementary base pairing, 41, 178, 179

Complementary DNA (cDNA), 261–262, 398

Complete cleavage, 790, 792, 793

Complete metamorphosis, 495

Components, of biological systems, 7

Composting, 271

Compound eyes, 722

Compound umbels, 440

Computational models, 9

Concurrent systems, 649

Condensation reactions, 26

Conditional mutations, 187

Condoms, 781

Conducting airways, 654, 655

Conducting system, of the heart, 670

Condylura cristata, 699, 730, 731

Cone cells, 720, 721, 723

Cones (reproductive structure), 437, 438

Conformers, 609–610

Conformity

defined, 610

energy costs, 610

hibernation and, 614–615

Conidia, 458, 464, 465

Coniferophyta, 424

Conifers

characteristics of, 436

life cycle, 437–438

Conjugation

in bacteria, 167–168

in protists, 414, 415

Connell, Joseph, 887

Consensus sequences, 202

Conservation biology, 878–880, 912

Conservation ecology, 862, 891–892

Conservation tillage, 553–554

Conservative replication, 179

Constant region, 819

Constitutive genes, 217, 222

Constitutive plant defenses, 590, 593–594

Consumer–resource interactions

effects on consumer and resource species, 886

effects on fitness, 883–884

evolutionary arms race, 892, 894

interaction webs and, 889, 890

Continental drift, 360–361, 362, 858–861

Contraception

contraceptive methods, 781–782

in human population control, 876

Contractile ring, 135, 137

Contractile vacuoles, 73, 407

Contraction, 682

See also Muscle contraction

Control mechanisms, in animals, 619–622

Control systems, 619–622, 734–736

Controlled experiments, 13, 14

Controlled variable, 619

Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), 932

Convergent evolution

biomes and, 854

defined, 328

phylogenetic analyses, 336, 337

Convergent molecular evolution, 314–316

Copepods, 493

Copper

as an enzyme cofactor, 52

in animal nutrition, 629

Copulation, 777

Coral bleaching, 416, 417

Coral reef fish, 827

Coral reefs, 856

Corals

asexual reproduction, 769, 770

description of, 478–480

dinoflagellate endosymbionts, 416, 417

fluorescent proteins, 325

larvae, 805

symbiosis with algae, 631

Cordite, 253

Corepressors, 219

Coriolis effect, 851

Cork, 533–534

Cork cambium, 527, 533–534

Corn

domestication, 534–535

flowers, 574

hybrid vigor, 160, 586

induced defenses against herbivores, 594, 595–596

Corn lily (Veratrum californicum), 787

Cornea, 719, 720

Corneal lens, 722

Corolla, 439

Corona (of rotifers), 482

Coronary artery disease, 670–671

Coronary circulatory system, 670–671

Coronavirus, 397

Corpora allata, 748

Corpus luteum, 779

Corpus luteum of pregnancy, 779–780

Corpus luteum of the cycle, 779

Cortex

roots, 528

shoots, 530

Corticotropin-releasing hormone, 743

Cortisol

half-life, 739

negative feedback regulation, 743

structure, 738

Corynebacterium diphtheriae, 394

Coryphopterus nicholsii, 776

Cosmic radiation, 191

Cost–benefit approach, to species interactions, 842

Cotyledons, 443, 524, 556, 557

Coumarins, 594

Countercurrent gas exchange

description of, 649, 650

in gills, 650–651

Countercurrent heat exchange, 674–675, 678–679

Countercurrent multiplication, 763, 765

Countercurrent systems, 649

Covalent bonds

in allosteric enzymes, 54–55

formation and properties, 20–23

CpG islands, 228

Crabapple, 447

Crabs

as predators on mussels, 895

“pinching” claws, 690

sperm storage in females, 782

sperm transfer in, 774

“Craniates,” 502

Crayfish

circulatory system, 664, 665

excretion of nitrogenous wastes, 755

hearts, 667

stretch receptor cells, 716

CRE (cAMP response element), 232

CREB (cyclic AMP response element binding protein)

gene regulation and alcoholism, 215, 232

histone acetylation and, 227

long-term memory and, 232

Crenarchaeota, 388, 389

Cretaceous period

history of life during, 371, 373

key events during, 360–361

meteorites and mass extinctions, 363, 364

Crichton, Michael, 172

Crick, Francis, 176–177, 178, 302

Crickets, 495

Crinoids, 499

Cristispira, 386

Crocodilians, 510, 775

Crocuta crocuta, 833, 834

Crop (digestive organ), 316, 636

Crop rotation, 553

Cross-bridges, 685

Crossing over, 143–144, 162–164

Crown gall, 387, 388

Crucella, 410

Crustaceans

description of, 492–494

hearts, 667, 671–672

number of species, 476

undiscovered living species, 518

Crustose lichens, 456

Cryptochromes, 568

Crystalline cone, 722

Ctenes, 477

Ctenophores, 475, 476, 477–478

Cultured animal cells, genetic transformation, 258

Current, 702, 704

Cuticle

of ecdysozoans, 487–488

of plants, 424, 525, 531

Cuttings, 587

I-11

Cyanide, 596

Cyanobacteria

cycling of oxygen and, 396

description of, 385–386

endosymbiosis in the evolution of the chloroplast, 404

impact on atmospheric oxygen, 364–365

as a photoautotroph, 394

stromatolites, 4

Cycadophyta, 424

Cycads, 436, 436

Cyclic AMP (cAMP)

CREB-gene regulation and alcoholism, 215

discovery as a second messenger, 99, 100

in epinephrine-activated glycogen breakdown, 100, 101

formation of, 101

Cyclic electron transport, 123

Cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs), 138–140, 282

Cyclins

breakdown, 232

control of the cell cycle, 138–140

Cyclooxygenase, 57–58

Cyclopamine, 787, 806

Cyclopia, 294

Cyclops. See Holoprosencephaly

Cyclops strenus, 493

Cyclostomes, 502

Cyperus papyrus, 521

Cysteine, 43, 44

Cytochalasin B, 76

Cytokines, 813, 819

Cytokinesis

in binary fission, 132, 133

cell division and, 132

in eukaryotic cells, 133, 134, 135–137

plant morphogenesis and, 522–523

Cytokinins, 559, 566, 567

Cytoplasm, prokaryotic cells, 64

Cytoplasmic determinants, 280, 789, 790

Cytoplasmic inheritance, 166–167

Cytoplasmic polarity, 280

Cytoplasmic segregation, 280

Cytoplasmic streaming, plasmodial slime molds, 412–413

Cytosine

base pairing, 38–40, 41

deamination, 189, 190

in DNA, 176, 177

DNA methylation, 227–229

in DNA replication, 179

structure, 38

vulnerability to mutation, 190–191

Cytoskeleton

cilia and flagella, 74–75

cytoplasmic segregation in the egg and, 280

eukaryotic cells, 66

in the evolution of the eukaryotic cell, 403

experimental manipulations, 75–76

functions, 73

intermediate filaments, 73–74

microfilaments, 73, 74

microtubules, 74–75

prokaryotic cells, 65

Cytosol, prokaryotic cells, 64

Cytotoxic T (TC) cells

AIDS and, 824

cellular immune response, 823–824

functions of, 817–818, 818

regulation by Tregs, 824

D

Daddy longlegs (Leiobunum rotundum), 492

Daffodils (Narcissus sp.), 446

Dalton, John, 19

Dalton (Da), 19

Damselflies, 495

Dandelions, 442, 444

Daphnia, 618, 877 (see also Water fleas)

Daphnia pulex, 875

Darwin, Charles

artificial selection and, 304

description of natural selection, 10

development of evolutionary theory, 299–301

on the evolution of eyes, 273

on hybrid vigor, 160

influence of Thomas Malthus on, 876

on multiplicative growth, 873

orchids and, 420, 447

on sexual selection, 306

on traits that benefit another species, 895

Darwin’s finches

allopatric speciation, 348, 349

importance of behavior in maintaining species, 841

interspecific competition and evolution, 892, 894

intraspecific competition and evolution in beak size, 892, 893

song learning behavior, 831

Data, 14

Date palms, 446

Daucus carota, 440, 532

Daughter chromosomes, 135, 137

“Dead zones,” 923, 925

Deamination, 189, 190

Decapods, 493

Decomposers

in biogeochemical cycling, 921

saprobic fungi, 453

in trophic interactions, 889, 890

Deep-sea hydrothermal vents, 390, 396, 856

Deepwater Horizon oil spill, 271

Defensins, 812, 813

Deficiency diseases, 628–629

Definitive urine, 760

Degraded habitats, restoration strategies, 912, 913

Dehydration, 759–760

Dehydration response element (DRE), 224, 225

Deinococcus, 385

Delayed implantation, 782–783

Deleterious mutations

asexual reproduction and Muller’s ratchet, 319

elimination by natural selection, 305

elimination by sexual recombination, 319

Deletions, 188–189, 313

Demethylase, 228, 229

Demography, 867

Demosponges, 476, 477

Denaturation, 45–46

Dendrites, 701, 712

Dendritic cells, 811, 817

Dendroctonus ponderosae, 931

Denitrification, 922, 923

Denitrifiers, 395

Density dependence, 873–874 (see also Intraspecific competition)

Dental plaque, 390, 391

Deoxygenation, 678

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

ancient, 172, 192

base sequences reveal evolutionary relationships, 41–42

circumstantial and experimental evidence as the genetic material, 173–177

coding regions and introns, 199–201

complementary base pairing, 38–40, 41

consensus sequences, 202

encoding and expression of information, 9, 40–41, 42, 178

histone modification and chromatin remodeling, 226–227

mechanisms of antibody diversity, 820–821

mutations, 178, 186–191, 312–313 (see also Mutations)

nucleic acid hybridization, 200–201

nucleotide structure, 38

phylogenetic analyses and, 331–332

quantification by staining, 173

restriction enzymes, 254–255, 256

“sticky ends” and “blunt ends,” 255, 256

structure–function relationship, 177–178 (see also DNA structure)

synthetic, 60, 262

transcription, 197–202

Deoxyribonucleoside triphosphates (dNTPs), 180, 185, 235–236

Deoxyribose, 27, 38, 41, 177

Depolarization

in action potentials, 707–708

defined, 706

Derived trait, 328

Dermal tissue system

description of, 524, 525

primary meristem creating, 527

roots, 528

Dermaptera, 495

Dermoptera, 514

Descent with modification, 300

Desert animals

kangaroo rats as, 885

urine/plasma ratio of mammals, 754

water–salt balance, 759–760

Desert annuals, 597

Desert grasslands, 855

Desmosomes, 78, 79

Determinate growth, 526

Determination

changes in gene expression and, 279–282

cytoplasmic polarity, 280

in development, 274

inducers and induction, 280–282

relationship to differentiation, 275

Determinism, 829–830

Detoxification enzymes, 618

Deuterostomes

chordates, 500–501 (see also Vertebrates)

cleavage, 791

defined, 472

echinoderms, 498–499

gastrulation and coloem development, 796, 797

hemichordates, 499–500

key features, 497–498

larval stage, 804–805

major clades, 498

summary of living members of major groups, 476

Development

changes in gene expression underlie cell fate determination and differentiation, 279–282

defined, 274

mechanisms in morphogenesis, 283–288

phylogenetic analyses and, 331, 332

processes and stages in animals and plants, 274–275

progressive restriction of cell fates, 275

reversibility of cell differentiation, 275–276, 277

stem cells, 276–279

See also Animal development; Plant growth and development

Developmental genes

evolution and, 291–293

gap genes, 286, 287

Hox genes, 286, 287–288

I-12

maternal effect genes, 286, 287

organ identity genes, 284, 285

pair rule genes, 286, 287

segment polarity genes, 287

segmentation genes, 286–287

similarity in distantly related organisms, 288–289

spatial organization on chromosomes, 289

Devil rays, 630

Devonian period, 360–361, 369, 372

d’Herelle, Felix, 399

Diadophis punctatus, 509

Diadumene leucolena, 479

Diaphragm (muscle), 655, 656, 657

Diaphragms (contraceptive method), 781

Diastole, 667, 668, 669

Diatomaceous earth, 418

Diatoms

features of, 408

fossil fuels and, 417

as primary producers, 415

red tides, 416

sedimentary rocks and, 418

Dichotomous branching, 429

Dictyostelium discoideum, 413

Didelphis virginiana, 513

Didinium, 887

Didinium nasutum, 407

Diet

gut microbiome and, 847

See also Food

Differential gene transcription, 282

Differentiation

changes in gene expression and, 279–282

defined, 797

in development, 274

of mesoderm, 800–801

of the neural tube, 797–800, 801

relationship to determination, 275

role of transcription factors in, 223–224

See also Cell differentiation

Diffusion

compared to active transport, 92

defined, 87

facilitated (see Facilitated diffusion)

of respiratory gases, 644–646

simple diffusion, 87–88

through air and water, 647–648

Diffusion coefficient, 645

Digestion

defined, 633

digestive abilities and the nutritional value of food, 633–635

digestive phenotypic plasticity, 635

endocrine control of, 639

evolution of digestive abilities, 634–635

in the midgut, 637–638

Digestive enzymes, 633–634, 635–636, 637

Digestive systems

digestive abilities and the nutritional value of foods, 632–635

gut microbiome and, 631–632, 641, 846, 847, 848

levels of organization, 616–617

overview, 632–633

principal functions of, 633

smooth muscle, 695, 696

Digestive vacuole, 407

Digits (phalanges), 292–293

Dihydropyridine receptor, 687

Dihydroxyacetone phosphate, 116

Dikarya, 462–465

Dikaryon, 462

Dinoflagellates

ecosystem importance, 418

as endosymbionts, 416, 417

features of, 406

red tides, 401, 416

tertiary endosymbiosis and the acquisition of chloroplasts, 405

Dinosaurs, 510

Dioecious species, 440, 574, 575, 576

Dionaea, 544, 545

Diphtheria, 394

Diploblastic animals, 471–472

Diploids, 131, 132, 152

Diplomonads, 410, 411

Dipodomys, 869

Dipodomys merriami, 885

Dipodomys ordii, 759–760

Dipsosaurus dorsalis, 611

Diptera, 495

Direct development, 804

Directional selection, 310, 311–312

Disaccharidases, 638

Disaccharides, 27

Dispersal

barriers to, 857–858

impact on ecological communities, 900–901

Dispersal corridors, 879, 880

Disruptive selection, 310, 311, 312

Distal convoluted tubule, 761–763, 765

Distalless (Dll) gene, 291–292

Disturbances, impact on ecological communities, 901–903

Disulfide bridges, 44, 45, 46

Diterpenes, 594

Diuretic hormones, in insects, 747

DNA bacteriophage, 221

DNA fingerprinting, 250

DNA fragments

genomic libraries and cDNA libraries, 261–262

joining by DNA ligase, 257

production by restriction enzymes, 254–255, 256

separation by gel electrophoresis, 255–256

DNA helicase, 180

DNA ligase, 184, 254, 257

DNA methylation, 227–229

DNA methyltransferase, 228

DNA microarrays, 248–249, 264–265

DNA polymerases

in DNA replication, 180, 181, 182, 184

in DNA sequencing, 235, 236

errors and error repair in DNA replication, 184–185

in the polymerase chain reaction, 185, 186

spontaneous mutations and, 189

DNA rearrangements, 313

DNA replication

in binary fission, 132, 133

cell division and, 132

complementary base pairing, 41, 178

DNA polymerases, 180, 181, 182, 184

DNA structure and, 178

errors and error repair, 184–185

in eukaryotic cells, 133

general steps in, 179

polymerase chain reaction and, 185–186

primers, 180, 181, 184

replication forks, 180, 181, 182–183

semiconservative replication, 179

significance of, 41, 42

telomeres, 183–184

DNA segregation

cell division and, 132

in eukaryotic cells, 133

DNA sequences

evolutionary relationships and, 41–42

noncoding, 318

phylogenetic analyses and, 332

recombinant DNA technology and, 253

reconstruction of ancestral sequences, 325, 336–337, 341

repetitive sequences, 246–247

transposons, 241–242

DNA sequencing

comparative genomics, 238

functional genomics, 237–238

impact on evolutionary biology, 302

metagenomics and, 241

methods, 235–237

uses of sequence information, 10, 235

See also Genome sequencing

DNA structure

antiparallel strands, 176–177

discovery of, 174–177

DNA function and, 177–178

key features of, 177, 178

major and minor grooves, 177, 178

DNA transposons, 246, 247

DNA viruses, 397, 399

Dobsonflies, 495

Dobzhansky, Theodosius, 11, 346

Dobzhansky–Muller model, 346, 347

Dog Genome Project, 234

Dogs

epistasis in coat color determination, 160, 161

genetic testing and, 252

genome and genome sequencing, 234, 251

Dolly (cloned sheep), 276, 277

Domains

key characteristics of, 63, 379, 380

Tree of life, 5

Domestication, impact on the plant body, 534–535

Dominance

codominance, 159–160

hierarchy of, 158–159

incomplete, 159

in societies, 839–840

Dominant traits

defined, 152

monohybrid crosses, 152–153

test crosses, 154, 155

Dominican Republic, 537

Dormancy, in seeds, 556, 567

Dorsal, 473

Dorsal fins, 503, 504

Dorsal lip of the blastopore, 799

Double covalent bonds, 22

Double fertilization, 442–443, 577

Double helix, of DNA, 40, 41, 176–177

Double-stranded RNA, 813

Double-stranded RNA viruses, 397, 398–399

Doubling time, 873

Doushantuo fossils, 368

Down syndrome, 145

Downy mildews, 408, 409

Dragonflies, 357, 495, 496, 497

Drosophila

alternative splicing in the Sxl gene, 229

artificial selection and genetic variation, 304

body segmentation during development, 285–288

crossing over and genetic recombination, 162–164

effect of atmospheric oxygen concentrations on body size, 365, 366

evolution of behavior, 829

eyeless mutant, 273

genome characteristics, 244, 245

incomplete cleavage, 792, 793

laboratory experiments in speciation, 356

polarity in early development, 788–789

reproductive isolation increases with genetic divergence, 347

sex determination in, 775

sex-linked inheritance, 164–165, 166

wing development, 289–290

Drought avoiders, 597–598

I-13

Drought stress

plant adaptations, 599, 600

stress response in plants, 224, 225

Droughts, 931

Drug-resistant bacteria, 168–169

Drugs

chemotherapy, 148–149

HIV drugs, 212, 825

pharmacogenomics, 249

protease inhibitors, 212

Drummond, Thomas, 346–347

Duck-billed platypus, 512, 513

Ducks, foot webbing in development, 290, 291

Ductless glands, 736

Dulbecco, Renato, 235

Dung beetles, 884, 901–902, 909–910

Duplications, 189

Dutch elm disease, 464, 585

“Dutchman’s pipe,” 445

Dwarf mistletoe, 544

Dwarfism, in plants, 559–560, 563–564

Dynein, 75, 135

Dyscophus guineti, 11

Dysentery, 638–639

E

E7 protein, 148

Ears, 717–718, 719

Earth

age of, 2

climate (see Climate; Climate change; Global warming)

magnetic field and animal orientation, 836, 837, 838

See also Physical environment

Earthworms, 485

Earwigs, 495

Easterlies, 851

Eastern bluebird, 883

Eastern chipmunks, 864

Eating

provides energy and chemical building blocks, 606–607, 625–629

See also Animal nutrition; Diet; Food; Trophic levels

Ecdysis, 747–748

Ecdysone, 748

Ecdysozoans

horsehair worms, 489–490

key features, 487–488

major subgroups, 476

nematodes, 488–489

small marine clades, 490

See also Arthropods

ECG. See Electrocardiogram

Echidnas, 512

Echinocactus grusnoii, 532

Echinoderms

appendages, 474

cleavage, 791

key features, 498–499

major subgroups, 476

Echinopsis calochlora, 447

Echinozoans, 499

Ecke, Albert, 573

Ecke, Paul, 588

Ecological communities. See Communities

Ecological efficiency, 903–904

Ecological systems

defined, 846

human impact on, 861–862

impact of cattle grazing on grasslands, 845, 862–863

scales of space and time, 846

scientific study of, 847, 848

See also Ecosystems

Ecological transition, 902–903

Ecology, origin of term, 846

EcoRI restriction enzyme, 254, 255, 256

Ecosystem function

effect of climate and nutrients on, 917–920

local and global perspectives, 917

Ecosystem services, 909–911

Ecosystems (ecological systems)

biogeochemical cycles, 920–926

compartments, 920

defined, 846, 917

effect of climate and nutrients on ecosystem function, 917–920

global warming and climate change, 916, 926–932

hierarchical organization of, 6–7, 846

human-dominated, 861–862

See also Ecological systems

Ectoderm

differentiation, 799, 800

in diploblastic and triploblastic embryos, 471–472

extraembryonic membranes and, 803

in gastrulation, 794, 795

tissues and organs formed from, 797

Ectomycorrhizae, 457 (see also Mycorrhizae)

Ectotherms, 611–612

See also Poikilotherms

Ediacaran fossils, 368

Edith’s checkerspot butterfly, 865, 877, 878, 900

Effector cells

in the cellular immune response, 822–824

functions of, 817

in the humoral immune response, 822

Effector proteins, 98

Effectors

autonomic, 725

in the central nervous system, 724

in control systems, 619

plant specific immunity and, 591

Efferent neurons. See Motor neurons

EGF (epidermal growth factor), 282

Eggs

amniote egg, 508

in animal reproduction, 769

cleavage, 790–794

contributions to the animal zygote, 788

cytoplasmic determinants, 790

cytoplasmic segregation, 280

effects of yolk on cleavage, 792

fertilization in animal reproduction, 773–774

gametic isolation, 353

See also Ova

Ejaculation, 695, 780

EKG. See Electrocardiogram

Electric eels, 696–697

Electric fields, perception of, 723

Electric organs, 696–697

Electric rays, 696–697

Electrical synapses, 709–710

Electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG), 671, 672

Electrochemical equilibrium, 704–705

Electrochemical gradients, in plant uptake of ions, 547

Electromagnetic radiation, 119, 120

Electromagnetic spectrum, 722

Electron carriers

NAD in redox reactions, 107–108

photosystems I and II, 122–123

respiratory chain, 111, 112

Electron microscopes, 62

Electron shells, 19–20

Electron transport

photosystems I and II, 122–123

respiratory chain, 111, 112

Electronegativity, 22–23

Electrons

in atomic structure, 19

Bohr model of electron shells, 19–20

chemical bonds and the formation of molecules, 20–26

Electrophorus, 696–697

Electroporation, 259

Element cycling

roles of prokaryotes in, 395–396

See also Biogeochemical cycles

Elements

description of, 19

pools and flux in biogeochemical cycles, 921

Elephantiasis, 489

Elephants, 514

Elicitors, 590, 591, 592

Elk (Cervus), 833, 889, 890–891, 904

Elodea, 120

Elongation

in transcription, 198, 199

in translation, 208–209

Elphidium, 410

Embioptera, 495

Embryo sac, 575, 576–577

Embryonic diapause, 782–783

Embryonic induction, 280–282

Embryonic stem cells, 279

Embryophytes, 421

See also Land plants

Embryos

defined, 274

development (see Development)

diploblastic and triploblastic patterns, 471–472

epiblast of the mammalian gastrula, 796

extraembryonic membranes, 802–804

human, 803

mammalian, 512

of plants (see Plant embryos)

polarity, 280

Emigration, 876–878

Emlen, Stephen, 831

Emu, 511

Encephalartos, 436

End-product inhibition. See Feedback inhibition

Endangered species

cloning of, 276

conservation, 878

Endergonic reactions, 32, 106

Endocrine cells

functions of, 735, 736

organization in control axes, 742–743

secretion of hormones, 739

types of, 736–737

Endocrine glands, 736

Endocrine system

action of hormones on target cells, 739

characteristics and interactions of nervous and endocrine control, 733, 734–736, 749

control axes, 742–743

major hormone groups, 737, 738

overview, 736

pituitary gland–hypothalamus connections and interactions, 740–743

receptor proteins, 737–738

regulation of insect molting, 747–748

regulation of physiological systems in mammals, 744–747

sequence of hormonal signaling, 739–740

types of endocrine cells, 736–747

Endocytosis, 93–95

Endoderm

in diploblastic and triploblastic embryos, 472

extraembryonic membranes and, 802–803

in gastrulation, 794, 795

tissues and organs formed from, 797

Endodermis, 528, 547–548

Endogenous retroviruses, 398

Endomembrane system, 68–71

Endometrium

blastocyst implantation, 777, 793, 794

I-14

in estrous cycles, 778

placenta and, 803

in pregnancy, 779–780

Endophytic fungi, 458

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

eukaryotic cells, 66

structure and function, 68–70

Endorphins, 744

Endoskeletons, 688–689

Endosomes, 94

Endosperm

formation, 577, 578

function of, 435, 442–443, 556

Endospores, 384

Endosymbiosis

in the evolution of eukaryotes, 4, 402, 404–405

lateral gene transfer and, 319

microbial eukaryotes and, 416, 417

origin of chloroplasts, 385

Endotoxins, 394

Endurance exercise

ATP supply to muscle cells, 692

defined, 694

muscle cell types and, 693

Energy

animal need for energy transport systems, 617

as a resource for organisms, 870

ATP production in animal cells, 617

chemical reactions and, 31

defined, 606

Earth as an open system with respect to, 920

Earth’s radiant energy budget, 927

in Earth’s radiation budget 926–927

energy content and values of food, 606–607, 625–626

energy needs of animals, 607–609

flow through ecological systems, 889, 903, 904

forms of, 31–32

laws of thermodynamics, 32–34

metabolism and, 32

need for energy by organisms, 606–607, 869–870

in photosynthesis, 121–122

relation to organization, 6, 606–607

as a resource for organisms, 869

solar energy input and climate, 849

use by homeotherms versus poikilotherms, 612–613

See also Energy as related to matter; Solar energy

Energy flux

community function and, 903–904

Energy metabolism

aerobic cellular respiration, 109–114

ATP hydrolysis and the release of energy, 106–107

coupling of NADH oxidation and ATP production, 108

fermentation pathways, 115–116

general principles governing, 106

integration of catabolic and anabolic pathways, 116–118

redox reactions, 107–108

Energy as related to matter, 6, 606–607, 625–627

English elm, 585

Enhancers, 223

Enkephalins, 744

Enteric nervous system, 635, 636, 726

Enterococcus, 381

Entomophthormycotina, 459

Entropy, 33

Environment. See Physical environment, Biotic environment

Environmental remediation. See Bioremediation; Phytoremediation

Environmental sex determination, 775

Enzymes

activation energy and the acceleration of chemical reactions, 49–50

allosteric, 54–55

aspirin’s inhibition of cyclooxygenase, 57–58

binding of reactants at active sites, 51–53

cofactors, 52

defined, 49

environmental factors affecting the activity of, 56–57

genes and, 195–196

inducible, 618

in the regulation of metabolic pathways, 53–57

reversible and irreversible inhibition of, 54, 55

Enzyme–substrate complex, 51–52

Eons, 359–361

Eosinophils, 811

Ephemeridae, 805

Ephemeroptera, 495

Epiblast, 792, 794, 795–796

Epidemics, 298, 323

Epidermal growth factor (EGF), 282

Epidermis, 525, 530, 531

Epididymis, 772, 780

Epigenetic gene regulation

description of, 226–229

maternal care and, 831–832

Epinephrine (adrenaline)

activation of glycogen breakdown, 99, 100–101

fight-or-flight response, 739

half-life, 739

structure and function, 638, 737, 738, 744

Epistasis, 160, 161

Episyrphus balteatus, 894

Epithelial endocrine cells, 736, 737

Epithelium

of the digestive system, 632–633

structure and function, 615, 616

in the vertebrate digestive system, 635, 636

Epitopes, 816

Epstein–Barr virus, 824–825

Eptatretus stoutii, 503

Equatorial Countercurrent, 852

Equatorial plate

meiosis II, 142

mitosis, 137

Equilibrium

and auxin ionization, 561

defined, 874

and diffusion, 87

of ligand–receptor complexes, 97

microfilament assembly, 73

systems, 8

Equilibrium population size, 874

Equilibrium potential, 704

Equilibrium species richness, 907

Equinoxes, 849, 850

Equisetum, 370, 430

Equisetum pratense, 429

Eras, 359–361

Erectile dysfunction, 780

Erection, 664, 780

Erethizon dorsatum, 513

Erinaceomorpha, 514

Erwin, Terry, 469

Erwinia uredovora, 269

Erythropoietin, 267

Escherichia, 394

Escherichia coli

accumulation of mutations in populations, 303

bacteriophage T2, 174

binary fission, 130

EcoRI restriction enzyme, 254, 255, 256

genome, 240–241, 244

lac operon, 217–219

origin of replication, 180

as a proetobacterium, 387

recombinant DNA and, 257

transcriptional regulation of lactose metabolism, 216–218

Eschrichtius robustus, 630

Escovopsis, 882

Esophagus, 637

Essay on the Principles of Population (Malthus), 876

Essential amino acids, 627, 641

Essential elements, in plant nutrition, 538–539

Essential fatty acids, 627, 641

Essential minerals, in animal nutrition, 629, 682

Essential nutrients, in animal nutrition, 627–628, 629, 641

Estemmenosuchus, 370

Ester linkages, 388

Estradiol, 738

Estrogens

actions of, 744

menstrual cycle, 778, 779

regulation of mammalian reproduction, 776, 777, 778–779

role in sexual development, 746, 747

Estrous cycles, 778, 784

Estrus, 768, 774, 778, 784

Estuarine biomes, 856, 857

Ether linkages, 388–389

Ethiopian biogeographic region, 858, 859, 861

Ethyl alcohol (ethanol), 115, 116

Ethylene, 559, 565–566

Etoposide, 148

Euchromatin, 228

Eudicots

defined, 446

early shoot development, 557

embryogenesis, 524

representatives of, 445, 446, 447

root structure, 529, 530

secondary growth, 533–534

stele, 529

structural characteristics, 522, 523

vascular bundles, 530–531

Euglena, 411

Euglenids, 405, 410–411

Eukarya (domain), 5, 63, 370, 380

Eukaryotes

asexual reproduction, 130

defined, 4

differences with prokaryotes, 379

domain of, 5

evolution of, 402–405

genomes, 243–247

major clades, 405

multiple origins of multicellularity, 405–406

posttranscriptional gene regulation, 229–232

protists, 402, 405 (see also Protists)

shared characteristics with prokaryotes, 379

transcriptional gene regulation, 222–225

Eukaryotic cells

cell division by mitosis and cytokinesis, 133–137

chemiosmosis in, 111–113

compartmentalization, 68

endomembrane system, 68–71

endosymbiosis in the evolution of, 402, 404–405

evolution of, 402–404

key features of, 63, 65–67

nucleus, 68

organelles, 71–73

ribosomes, 68

sexual reproduction and the generation of genetic diversity, 130–131

Eukaryotic viruses, 225–226

Eumetazoans, 475

Eumorpha pandorus, 654

I-15

Euphorbia pulcherrima, 573

Euphydryas editha, 865, 877, 878

Euphyllophytes, 422, 431

Euplectella aspergillum, 477

Euplectes progne, 306, 307

Euplotes, 407

Eurasian Plate, 361

Europa, 18

Europasaurus holgeri, 370

European green crab, 895

European rabbits, 768

Euryarchaeota, 388, 389–390

Eurycea waterlooensis, 507

Eusociality, 840–841

Eustachian tube, 718

Eusthenopteron, 506

Eusthenopteron foordi, 369

Eutherians

cleavage, 792–793

key features and major groups, 512–514

primates and human evolution, 514–517

See also Placental mammals

Eutrophication, 923, 925

Evaporation

in the global water cycle, 921

in thermoregulation, 614

See also Transpiration

Even-toed hoofed mammals, 514

Evolution

actions of natural selection on quantitative traits, 310–312

of animal behavior, 829

artificial selection on genetic variation, 303–304

of cleavage patterns in development, 790

of coelom development, 796, 797

coevolution in plant–animal interactions, 441–442, 894, 895

defined, 10, 299, 302

developmental genes and, 291–293

ecological interactions result in, 892

as fact and the basis for theory, 11

gene duplications and, 319–320

gene flow and, 305

genetic drift and, 305

genomes and molecular evolution, 312–318

lateral gene transfer and, 319

of leaf-cutter ant–fungus interaction, 896–897

major steps in the origin and history of life, 2–4

measuring by changes in allele frequencies, 307–310

“modern synthesis,” 301–302

of morphology, 291–293

mutations and the generation of genetic variation, 9, 191, 302–303

natural selection and adaptation, 10–11, 304–305

origin and development of evolutionary theory, 299–302

principal processes in, 302, 308

rate of evolutionary change, 895

sexual recombination and, 318–319

sexual selection, 306, 307

species interactions and, 892–896

tree of life, 4–5

viruses and, 298, 322–323

in vitro evolution, 321, 322

See also Convergent evolution; Molecular evolution

Evolutionary developmental biology, 288–291

Evolutionary reversals, 328

Evolutionary theory

Darwin’s main propositions, 300

history of, 299–302

meaning of, 299

useful applications, 299, 321–322, 323

Evolutionary trends, 311

Excavates, 410–412

Excitable cells, 700

See also Muscle cells; Neurons

Excitation, of muscle fibers, 685, 686

Excitation–contraction coupling, 685–688, 696

Excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs), 712–713

Excitatory synapses, 712

Excretion, of nitrogenous wastes, 755–756

Excretory organs. See Kidneys

Exercise

anaerobic ATP production and lactic acid accumulation, 617

ATP supply to muscle cells, 692

effect on skeletal muscle, 693–694

impact on metabolic rate, 608–609

measuring the energy costs of, 605, 622

muscle cell types and, 693

Exergonic reactions, 32, 49–50, 106

Exocrine glands, 736

Exocytosis, 93

Exons

in the eukaryotic genome, 246

in genes, 200

removal, 201–202

Exoskeletons

attachment and pulling of skeletal muscles, 689–690

defined, 688

ecdysozoans, 488

molting in insects, 747–748

Exotoxins, 394

Expansins, 563

Experiments, 13, 14, 15

Expression vectors, 265–266

Expressivity, 162

External environment

animal regulation and conformity, 609–610

homeotherms (see Homeotherms/Homeothermy)

poikilotherms, 610–612, 613

External expiration, 646

See also Breathing

External fertilization, 773

External genitalia, 746

Extinct species, cloning of, 276

Extinction rates

minimizing in fragmented habitats, 912

theory of island biogeography, 907

Extinctions

impact on ecological communities, 900–901

interspecific interactions and, 887

in subpopulations, 876–877

See also Mass extinctions

Extracellular fluid, 615

Extracellular matrix

membrane proteins and, 83

structure and function, 77–78

Extraembryonic membranes

contributions of germ layers to, 802–803

development in placental mammals, 796

Extrarenal salt excretion, 754–755

Extreme halophiles, 389–390

Extremophiles, 385

Exxon Valdez oil spill, 271

Eye fields, 294

Eye infections, 387

Eyeless gene, 273, 294

Eyes

compound, 722

evolution, 273, 294

holoprosencephaly, 787, 806

vertebrate retina, 719–721

See also Visual systems

“Eyes,” of potatoes, 531, 532, 586

F

F-box, 564

Fabaceae, 542

Facilitated diffusion

by channel proteins and carrier proteins, 89–91, 92

in plant uptake of ions, 546–547

Factor VIII, 267

Facultative anaerobes, 394

Facultative parasites, 453

Fallopian tubes, 777

False hellebore, 787

Familial hypercholesterolemia, 95

Family (Linnaean classification), 339

Family trees, 157–158

“Fan worms,” 484

Far-red light, phytochrome-mediated responses in plants, 568–569

Farm animals

pharming, 266–267

See also Cattle

Fast glycolytic cells

characteristics of, 692, 693

effect of training on, 694

Fast synapses, 712–713

Fast-twitch cells. See Fast glycolytic cells

Fate maps, 790

Fats, 29–30

Fatty acids

absorption in the midgut, 638

in animal nutrition, 627

catabolic interconversions, 116

essential fatty acids, 627, 641

formed from acetyl CoA, 117

glucose-activated synthesis, 117–118

in membranes, 84, 85

regulation of blood levels, 640

structure and properties, 29–30

Fauna, 367

FD gene, 582, 583, 584

Fear response, 729

“Feather duster worms,” 484

Feather stars, 499

Feathers, evolution, 511

Feces, 638, 848

Fecundity, 868

Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), 250

Feedback

inhibition, 55, 56, 117

negative, 8, 619–620, 716

positive, 8, 620, 708

Feedback inhibition, 55, 56, 117

Females

ovulation, 777–779

primary and accessory reproductive organs, 770

secondary sexual characteristics, 770–771

Fermentation

gut microbiome and, 631–632

human uses of, 126

pathways in, 115–116

Ferns, 429–431

Ferritin, 231

Fertile Crescent, 269

Fertilization

activation of animal development, 788

in angiosperms, 442–443, 577

in animals, 773–774

defined, 131

in mammals, 777

phylogenetic analyses of mechanisms in flowering plants, 336, 337

sex determination in animals and, 774–775

Fertilizers, 541 (see also Nitrogen cycle)

Fetal hemoglobin, 246

Fetscher, Elizabeth, 442

Fetus, 803

Fever, 813–814

Fibers, 439, 526

Fibroblasts, 224

Fibrous root system, 529, 530

Ficedula hypoleuca, 828

Fick’s law, 645

I-16

“Fight-or-flight” hormone. See Epinephrine

Fight-or-flight response, 726, 739

Filamentous sac fungi, 464, 465

Filaments, 439

Filter feeders, 630

Fins, 503, 504

Fire, impact on terrestrial biomes, 856

Fire-bellied toad, 354–355

Fire salamanders, 507

Firmicutes, 384, 385, 847, 848

First filial generation (F1)

defined, 151

dihybrid crosses, 154–155

monohybrid crosses, 152, 153

test crosses, 154, 155

Fish hawk, 629, 630

Fisheries management, 878

Fishes

action of prolactin, 739

allopatric speciation in freshwater fishes, 348

circulatory system, 665–666

conservation of, 878

countercurrent heat exchange, 675, 678–679

electric organs, 696–697

evolution of, 503–504

evolution of jaws and teeth, 503

excretion of nitrogenous wastes, 755

eyeless, 294

fins, 503, 504

gnathostomes, 503–504

hearts, 667

hyperosmotic regulators, 757–758

hyposmotic regulators, 756–757, 758

inducible enzymes, 618

jawless, 501–503

perception of electric fields, 723

ray-finned, 502, 504, 505

red and white swimming muscles, 693 (see also Red swimming muscles)

schooling behavior, 827, 839, 843

sex changes, 775, 776

swim bladders, 504

water–salt balance, 751, 766

yolk sac, 803–804

Fishflies, 495

Fission, 769

Fitness

interspecific interactions and, 883–884

intraspecific interactions and, 892

selection and, 310–312

Fixed action patterns, 828

Flagella

of chytrids, 460

prokaryotic cells, 65

structure and function, 74–75

Flatworms, 476, 481–482, 518, 648

Flavin, 52

Flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD)

in aerobic cellular respiration, 111

as an electron carrier in redox reactions, 108

as a cofactor, 52

Flavonoids, 542, 594

Flavoparmelia, 456

FLC gene, 584

Fleas, 495

Fleming, Alexander, 450

Flight

evolution in birds, 511

See also Wings

Flight muscles, of insects, 681, 696, 697

Flightless birds, 510, 511

Flocking behavior, 839

Flora, 367

Floral meristems

floral organ development, 284, 285

floral organ identity genes, 580

formation, 579

meristem identity genes, 580

organs produced, 580

See also Flowering

Floral organ identity genes, 580

Florey, Howard, 450

Florigen, 582, 583

Flowering

floral organ development, 284, 285

floral organ identity genes, 580

florigen, 582, 583

formation of floral and inflorescence meristems, 579–580

induction by gibberellins, 584

induction by temperature, 584

meristem identity genes, 580

overview, 579

photoperiod and, 580–582

in response to environmental factors, 584–585, 929

role of leaves in, 582, 583

Flowering plants. See Angiosperms

Flowers

development (see Flowering)

evolution, 440

morphology, 439–440, 574–575

pollination strategies, 420, 441–442, 447–448

Flu epidemics, 298, 323

Fluid compartments, 615–616

Fluid mosaic model, 83

Fluorescent proteins

reconstruction of ancestral states, 325, 341

See also Green fluorescent protein5-Fluorouracil, 148

Flux

between communities and the environment, 903 (see also Energy flux)

of elements in biogeochemical cycles, 921 (see also Biogeochemical cycles)

Fly agaric, 465

Flying insects

of the Carboniferous and Permian, 357

effect of atmospheric oxygen concentrations on body size, 357, 365, 366, 374

flight muscles, 681, 696, 697

Flying squirrels, 620, 621

Folic acid, 229, 628

Foliose lichens, 456, 457

Follicle cells, 788–789

Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)

actions of, 744

menstrual cycle, 778, 779

regulation of mammalian reproduction, 776, 778–779, 781

in sexual development, 746–747

support of spermatogenesis, 781

as a tropic hormone, 741

Food

processing, digestion, and absorption, 636–638

provision of energy and chemical building blocks, 625–629

regulation of meal processing in animals, 639–641

relationship of food value to digestive abilities, 632–635

ways of acquiring, 629–630

See also Animal nutrition

Food vesicles, 93

Food webs, 889, 890

Foot (molluscan), 485, 486, 487, 691

Foot webbing, 290, 291

Foraging behavior, cost–benefit analysis, 842

Foraminiferans, 409–410, 418

Forebrain, 727–728, 798

Foregut, 636–637

Foregut fermentation, 314–316

Foregut fermenters, 637

Forelimbs, loss in snakes, 292

Forensics, phylogenetic analyses, 334, 335

Forestry, plant cloning and, 276

Form. See Form and function interrelationships

Form and function interrelationships

as exemplified by cell membranes, 83

as exemplified by DNA form and function, 40, 179

as exemplified by ecological relationships, 899–890, 901

as exemplified by the muscles of the body, 682–684

as exemplified by protein enzymes, 51–52

as exemplified by the leaf, 531

as exemplified by neuron form and function, 701

See also Structure—function relationships

Fossil fuels

in the carbon cycle, 924

climate change and, 361–362, 916, 928, 932

diatoms and, 417

formation of coal, 429

Fossil record

Cenozoic era, 373–374

dating of fossils, 357, 358–359

earliest cells, 80

history of Precambrian life, 367–368

Mesozoic era, 373

number of described fossil species, 367

Paleozoic era, 372–373

Phanerozoic eon, 368–372

Precambrian life, 367–368

reasons for the paucity of, 367

See also Paleontology

Founder effect, 305

Four-chambered heart, 512

Four o’clock plants, 167

FOXP2 gene, 192

Fragaria, 532

Fragmentation, of habitats, 911–912

Frameshift mutations, 205, 206, 820

Franklin, Rosalind, 175, 176

Free energy, 49–50, 106

Freeze-tolerant plants, 600

French flag model, 283

Freshwater biomes, 856–857

Freshwater fishes, allopatric speciation, 348

Freshwater protists, contractile vacuoles, 73

Frogs

behavioral isolation, 351–352

cell fate restriction during development, 275

complete cleavage, 792, 793

experiments on amphibian decline, 12–13, 14, 15

gastrulation, 795

hopping behavior and ATP production, 832–833

temporal isolation, 351, 352

Frontal lobe, 728

Fructose, 27, 124

Fruit flies. See Drosophila

Fruits

auxin and development, 562

ethylene and ripening, 565

growth and gibberellins, 560

seed dispersal and, 443–444, 577–578

a shared trait of angiosperms, 439

types of, 443–444

Fruticose lichens, 456

FT gene, 582, 583, 584

Fucoxanthin, 408

Function

of ecological communities, 903

of ecosystems, 917

See also Community function; Ecosystem function; Ecosystem services; Form and function

I-17

interrelationships; Structure—function relationships

Functional genomics, 237–238, 240

Functional groups, 25–26

Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), 729

Fungal diseases, 454, 455

Fungal gardens, 882, 896–897

Fungi

absorptive heterotrophy, 451–452

in animal innate defenses, 812

antibiotics and, 450, 468

arbuscular mycorrhizae, 542–543

biocontrol of mosquitoes, 468

cultivation by leaf-cutter ants, 882, 883, 884, 896–897

endophytic, 458

in environmental remediation, 466

evolution, 451

as indicators of environmental change, 466, 467

major groups and their life cycles, 458–465

mutualistic, 455–457

parasitic, 453–454

pathogenic, 454, 455

penicillin, 450

predatory, 454–455, 456

saprobic, 453

surface area-to-volume ratio, 452

unicellular yeasts, 451

Furcula, 510

Fusarium, 454

G

G1 checkpoint, 139

G2 checkpoint, 139

G1 phase, 134, 136, 138, 139

G2 phase, 134, 136

G protein-linked receptor proteins (GPLRs), 716–717

G protein-linked receptors

of hormones, 737–738, 739

metabotropic receptor cells, 712, 715

olfactory receptor cells, 716–717

structure and function, 98

G proteins

GTPase activity, 102

metabotropic receptor cells, 715

Gain-of-function mutations, 187, 188, 285

Galactose, 27

β-Galactosidase, 217

β-Galactosidase gene, 260, 266

β-Galactoside, 217, 218

β-Galactoside permease, 217

β-Galactoside transacetylase, 217

Galagos, 514

Galápagos archipelago

allopatric speciation in Darwin’s finches, 348, 349

Darwin’s travels to, 300

Galápagos finches. See Darwin’s finches

Galápagos tortoise, 509

Gallbladder, 636

Gametangia, 427, 460, 461

Gametes

in animal reproduction, 769

gametic isolation, 353

production in animals, 771–773

in sexual reproduction, 130, 131

Gametic isolation, 353

Gametogenesis, 771–773

Gametophyte

in angiosperms, 439, 575–576

in the life cycle of land plants, 424–452

in plant evolution, 433

in seed plants, 432–433

Ganglion (pl. ganglia)

annelids, 484

arthropod nervous system, 724–725

crustacean heart, 671, 672

vertebrate nervous systems, 725, 726

Ganglion cells, 720–721, 721–722

Gangliosides, 71

Ganoderma applanatum, 465

Gap genes, 286, 287

Gap junctions

in cardiac muscle, 695

in electrical synapses, 710

in smooth muscle, 696

structure and function, 78, 79

Garrod, Archibald, 195

Gas chromatography, 239

Gas exchange, stomatal control in plants, 550–551

Gas exchange membranes

in cocurrent and countercurrent gas exchange systems, 649–650

defined, 646

perfusion, 649

surface area in breathing organs, 649

Gases

law of diffusion, 645

See also Atmospheric gases; Respiratory gases

Gastrin, 639

Gastrocnemius, 689, 690

Gastrointestinal disease, 387, 392

Gastrophryne carolinensis, 352

Gastrophryne olivacea, 352

Gastropods, 485, 486, 487

Gastrovascular cavity, 478

Gastrula, 275

Gastrulation, 472, 794–797

Gated ion channels

evolution in sodium channels, 321

membrane potential and, 705–706

stimulus-gated sodium channels, 715

stretch-gated channels, 705, 706, 716

types and mechanisms, 89

See also Ligand-gated ion channels; Voltage-gated ion channels

Gaucher’s disease, 267

Gause, Georgii F., 886–887

Gehring, Walter, 273

Gel electrophoresis, 254, 255–256

“Gene chips.” See DNA microarrays

Gene duplications, 319–320

Gene expression

in cell fate determination and differentiation, 279–282

defined, 41, 42

differences between prokaryotes and eukaryotes, 199

DNA microarrays and, 264–265

evolution of development and, 288–291

genetic code, 203–206

overview, 197

in pattern formation and morphogenesis, 283–288

in plant induced defenses, 591

posttranslational modification of polypeptides, 211–213

proteins and, 194

transcription, 197–202

translation, 206–210

“Gene expression signatures,” 264–265

Gene families, 246, 320

Gene flow, 305, 308

Gene-for-gene resistance, in plants, 592

“Gene guns,” 259

Gene inactivation, by homologous recombination, 262–263

Gene pools, 302–303

Gene regulation

CREB and alcoholism, 215

epigenetic, 226–229

examples of, 216

positive and negative regulation, 216

posttranscriptional, 229–232

transcriptional regulation in eukaryotes, 222–225

in viral reproduction, 220–221

Gene trees, lateral gene transfer in prokaryotes and, 382–383

General immunity, in plants, 591, 592–593

General transcription factors, 222

Generative cell, 575–576

Genes

alleles, 152 (see also Alleles)

animal behavior and, 829

artificial gene constructs, 262

defined, 41, 42, 162

determination of phenotype, 154

epistasis and hybrid vigor, 160, 161

evolution of, 312–318 (see also Molecular evolution)

gene–environment interactions, 160–162

genetic information and, 9

homozygous and heterozygous alleles, 153

horizontal transfer in prokaryotes, 167–169

imprinting, 229

incompatibility between can produce reproductive isolation, 346, 347

inducible and constitutive, 217, 222

lateral gene transfer, 319

locus, 162

mapping, 164

Mendelian inheritance, 151–158

mutation and the formation of new alleles, 158, 186–188

organelles and cytoplasmic inheritance, 166–167

polymorphic, 158

in the production of phenotype, 158–162

promoters, 198, 199–200

recombination, 162–164

recombination frequency, 164

regulatory and structural, 219

relationship to proteins, 194, 195–197

silencing mechanisms, 230, 231

Genetic code

characteristics of, 203–204

near universality of, 204–205

point mutations, 205–206

redundancy, 204

Genetic divergence, reproductive isolation and, 346–347

Genetic diversity

generation by crossing over and independent assortment in meiosis, 140, 142–145

generation by meiosis in sexual reproduction, 130–131

Genetic drift, 305, 313

Genetic information

description of, 9–10

encoding and expression in DNA, 9, 40–41, 42, 178

Genetic linkage

crossing over and recombination, 162–164

Drosophila as a model organism, 162–166

sex-linked inheritance, 164–165, 166

X-linked inherited diseases, 824

Genetic recombination, 162–164

Genetic screens, for studying plant signal transduction, 557–558

Genetic self-incompatibility, 576

Genetic structure, 308

Genetic switches, 289–290, 291

Genetic testing, of dogs, 252

Genetic toolkit, 289–290, 291

Genetic transformation. See Transformation

Genetic variation

I-18

allele frequencies as a measure of, 308

artificial selection on, 303–304

mutation and the generation of, 302–303

population bottlenecks and, 305

Genetically modified plants, 267–270

Genome sequencing

dogs and, 251

methods, 235–237

uses of genomic information, 10, 235, 250–251

See also DNA sequencing

Genomes

archaea, 387

comparative genomics, 238

defined, 4, 41

dog, 234

eukaryotes, 243–247

evolution of size and organization, 317–318 (see also Molecular evolution)

functional genomics, 237–238

gene families, 246

genetic information in, 9, 41

human and chimpanzee genomes compared, 42

minimal genome, 242, 243

model organisms, 243–245

mutations and evolution, 4, 9

phylogenetic analyses and, 331–332

prokaryotic, 240–243

uses of genomic information, 10, 235, 250–251

See also Human genome

Genomic equivalence, 275

Genomic imprinting, 229

Genomic libraries, 261

Genotype

defined, 153

genotype–environment interactions, 160–162

Genotype frequencies

calculating, 307–308

Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium and, 308–310

impact of nonrandom mating on, 306, 307

Genotype technology, 248–249

Genus, 338

Geobacter metallireducens, 113

Geographic range, 865

See also Home ranges

Geological time scale, 359–361

Geospiza

interspecific competition and evolution, 892, 894

intraspecific competition and evolution in beak size, 892, 893

See also Darwin’s finches

Geospiza fuliginosa, 892, 894

Geospiza scandens, 868, 869

Germ cells, gametogenesis and, 771–773

Germ layers

contributions to extraembryonic membranes, 802–803

in gastrulation, 794–797

tissues and organs formed from, 797

Germination (of pollen grains), 576

Germination (of seeds)

gibberellins and, 560–561

prevention by abscisic acid, 566–567

process of, 556–557

Germline mutations, 186

Gestation

in humans, 803

in marsupials, 512

Gharials, 510

Ghrelin, 639

Giant anteater, 340

Giardia lamblia, 410

Giardiasis, 410

Giarida muris, 411

Gibberella fujikuroi, 558

Gibberellins

discovery of, 558–560

effects on plant growth and development, 560–561

induction of flowering, 584

molecular mechanisms underlying the actions of, 563–564

semi-dwarf grains and, 571

structure and function, 559

Gibbons, 515

Gill arches, 650, 651

Gill filaments, 650–651

Gill slits, 650, 651

Gills

countercurrent gas exchange, 650–651

structure and function, 646, 647

surface area of gas exchange membranes, 649

of tuna, 661

ventilation, 647

Ginkgophyta, 424

Ginkgos (Ginkgo biloba), 370, 424, 436

Giraffes, neck evolution, 290

Girdle, 485

Gizzard, 636

Glaciation

during the Pleistocene, 374

during the Proterozoic, 367–368

during the Quaternary, 361

Gladiators, 495

Glands

exocrine and endocrine, 736

See also specific glands Glans, 746

Glass sponges, 476, 477

Glaucocystis, 423

Glaucomys volans, 621

Glaucophytes, 421, 422, 423

Glial cells, functions of, 701–702

Global ecosystem

biogeochemical cycles, 920–926 (see also Biogeochemical cycles)

compartments, 920

ecosystem function, 917–920

global warming and climate change, 916, 926–932

Global warming

effects on weather and climate, 927, 928, 929

greenhouse gases and, 927, 928

role of human activities in, 928

See also Climate changeβ-Globin, 188, 196β-Globin gene, 202

Globin gene family, 246, 320

Globular embryo, 524

Glomeromycota, 458, 459, 462

Glomerular filtration rate (GFR), 761

Glomerulus, 760–761

Glucagon, 640–641

Glucocorticoids

actions of, 744

hypothalamus–pituitary–adrenal cortex axis, 743

Gluconeogenesis, 117

Glucose

aerobic oxidation, 111–114

blood glucose regulation by hormones, 640–641

facilitated diffusion, 90, 91

fatty acid synthesis and, 117–118

formation in gluconeogenesis, 117

from the hydrolysis of polysaccharides, 116

polysaccharides of, 28

produced by photosynthesis, 124, 125

structure, 27

Glucose transporter, 90, 91

Glucosinolates, 594

Glutamic acid, 43, 196

Glutamine, 43

Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (G3P), 110, 124, 125

Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase, 110

Glycerol

absorption in the midgut, 638

in the catabolic interconversions of lipids, 116

structure, 29

Glycine, 43, 44

Glycine, 862

Glycine max. See Soybean

Glycogen

epinephrine-activated breakdown, 99, 100–101

molecular and macromolecular structure, 28

in the regulation of blood nutrient levels, 640–641, 744

as a stored energy source, 626–627

Glycogen phosphorylase, 99, 100, 101

Glycogen synthase, 100–101

Glycolipids, 86

Glycolysis

aerobic, 109–110

anaerobic, 115, 116, 617

Glycolytic system of ATP supply, 691–692

Glycoproteins, 70, 86

Glycosides, 594

Glycosidic linkages, 27

Glycosylation, 212, 213

Glyoxysomes, 72

Glyphosate resistance, 270

G2–M phase transition, 135

Gnathonemus, 723

Gnathostomes, 503–504

Gnetophytes, 424, 436

Goiter, 745–746

Golden butterflyfish, 827

Golden toads, 507

Golgi, Camillo, 70

Golgi apparatus

eukaryotic cells, 66, 67

structure and function, 69, 70

Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)

pulsed secretion, 743

regulation of mammalian reproduction, 776, 777–778

in sexual development, 747

Gonadotropins, 741, 746–747

Gonads

gametogenesis, 771–773

as primary reproductive organs, 770

sex steroids and sexual development, 746–747

sex steroids and the regulation of mammalian reproduction, 776–777, 778–779, 780, 781

Gondwana, 373, 859

Gorillas, 515

Goshawks, 839

Graafian follicle, 773

Graded changes, in membrane potential, 706–707

Grafting, 586

Grains, improved nutritional characteristics of transgenic plants, 269

Gram-negative bacteria, 381

Gram-positive bacteria, 381

Gram stains, 381

Grant, Peter, 841, 893

Grant, Rosemary, 841

Granulosa cells, 772–773, 778, 779

Graphosoma lineatum, 497

Graspus graspus, 493

Grasshoppers, 497

body plan, 494

breathing system, 653–654

characteristics of, 496

number of species, 495

Grasslands

biogeography, 854–856

ecological impact of cattle grazing, 845, 862–863

fire and, 856

I-19

U.S.–Mexico Borderlands, 845, 855, 856, 861–862, 862–863

Gravitropism, 562

Gray crescent, 789, 794

Grazing herbivores

ecological impact of cattle, 845, 862–863

eutherians, 513

See also Herbivory

Great American Interchange, 859

Great tits, 930, 931

Great white shark, 504

Greater prairie chicken, 305

Greek tortoise, 787

“Green algae,” 421, 423

Green crabs, 895

Green fluorescent protein (GFP), 260, 261, 325

Green plants, 421, 422

Green Revolution, 555, 570–571, 876

Greenhouse gases/Greenhouse effect, 389, 916, 926–927

See also Climate change

Gremlin gene, 290, 291

Grey whales, 630

Greylag geese, 830–831

Gross primary productivity (GPP), 903, 904

Ground finch, 892, 894

Ground meristem

root cortex, 528

shoots, 530

tissue system created by, 527

Ground tissue system

description of, 524, 525–526

primary meristem creating, 527

roots, 528

Groundhogs, 615

Group living, 839–841

Growing seasons, 853

Growing strand. See Leading strand

Growth

allometric, 804

animal behavior and, 833, 834

in development, 274

See also Population growth

Growth factors, in cell cycle regulation, 138, 140

Growth hormone (GH)

actions of, 744

releasing hormone for, 742

secretion by the anterior pituitary gland, 741

structure, 738

Grus canadensis, 512

Grylloblattodea, 495

G1–S transition, 138, 140

GTPase, 102

Guanine

base pairing, 38–40, 41

in DNA, 176, 177

in DNA replication, 179

structure, 38

Guanosine diphosphate (GDP), 98

Guanosine triphosphate (GTP), 98

Guard cells, 550, 551

Gulf of Mexico

“dead zones,” 923, 925

red tides, 401

Gulf Stream, 851–852

Gulls, begging behavior, 828

Gumaga, 497

Gut epithelium

endocrine cells, 639

in the vertebrate digestive system, 635, 636

Gut lumen, 635, 636

Gut microbiome (see also Microbiome)

as an ecological system, 846, 847, 848

animal nutrition and, 631–632, 641

obesity and, 847, 848

Gymnosperms

characteristics of, 435–436

conifer life cycle, 437–438

evolution of, 436–437

in the evolution of plants, 422

life cycle, 433

major groups, 424, 436

Gypsy moth, 864

Gyres, 851–852

H

H zone, 683, 684

Habeler, Peter, 643

Habitat corridors, 879, 880

Habitat isolation, 352, 356

Habitat structure, 900, 901

Habitats

defined, 865

fragmentation, 911–912

restoration of degraded habitats, 912, 913

Hadean eon, 359, 360–361

Hadley cells, 850–851, 927

Hadobacteria, 385

Hadrurus arizonensis, 475

Haeckel, Ernst, 846

Haemophilus influenzae, 240–241, 244

Hagfishes, 501–503

Hair, 512

Hair cells, auditory, 717–718, 719

Haiti, 537

Half-life

of hormones, 739

of radioactive isotopes, 358

Halophytes, 601

Hammerhead sharks, 773–774

Haplochromine cichlids, 343

Haploids, 131, 132, 152

Haplotype mapping, 248

Haplotypes, 248

Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium, 308–310

“Harvest index,” 571

Harvestmen, 492

Hasimoto’s thyroiditis, 816

Haustoria, 454

Hawk moth, 681

Hawthorn trees, 350

Hayes, Tyrone, 13, 14, 15

Hearing organs, 717–718, 719

Heart muscle. See Myocardium

Heart rhythm, 695

Heartbeats, 668–670, 671

Hearts

in amphibians and non-avian reptiles, 666–667

in crustaceans, 671–672

in fish, 665

four-chambered, 512

in mammals and birds, 666

muscle tissue of, 667

overview, 667

stroke volume and cardiac output, 667

in vertebrates, 667–670 (see also Myogenic hearts)

“Heat.” See Estrus

Heat

metabolic rate and, 607

circulation of, in Earth system, 850–851 (see also Greenhouse effect)

Heat capacity, 23

Heat of vaporization, 23

Heat shock proteins, 600

Heat shock response, 600

Heavy metal tolerance, in plants, 601–602

Hedgehog gene, 787

Height

heritability in humans, 162

variation among human populations and life histories, 870

Heinrich, Bernd, 842

Helical molecules, 176–177

Helicobacter pylori, 393

Heliconius, 894, 895

Hemaris thysbe, 681

Hematopoietic stem cell transplantation, 278–279

Hematopoietic stem cells, 278–279

Heme, 52

Hemichordates, 476, 498, 499–500

Hemigrapsus sanguineus, 895

Hemiparasites, 544

Hemiptera, 495

Hemitrichia serpula, 413

Hemizygotes, 165

Hemocyanin, 678

Hemoglobin

beta thalassemia, 202

blood transport of oxygen, 677–678

gene duplication in the evolution of, 320

globin gene family, 246

hemoglobin C disease, 196

molecular clock analysis, 337

pogonophorans, 485

in water fleas, 618

Hemoglobin C disease, 196

Hemolymph, 664, 665

Hemophilia, 150, 169–170

Hensen’s node, 795, 799

Henslow, John, 299

Hepatic portal vein, 668

Hepatic veins, 668

Hepatophyta, 424

Herbicide resistance, 270

Herbicides, amphibian decline and, 13, 14, 15

Herbivory

ecological impact of cattle grazing, 845, 862–863

effects on fitness, 883, 884

as an interspecific interaction, 883

induced and constitutive defenses against in plants, 593–596

mammalian herbivores, 513

Heritability, 162

Hermaphrodites, sequential, 775, 776

Herpes viruses, 397

Herring gulls, 828

Heterocephalus glaber, 840

Heterochromatin, 228, 247

Heterochrony, 290

Heterocysts, 386

Heterokaryons, 86

Heteroloboseans, 410

Heteromorphic alternation of generations, 415

Heterophrynus batesi, 488

Heterospory

in seed plants, 433

in vascular plants, 431–432

Heterotopy, 290, 291

Heterotrophs

consumption of plant matter, 124

defined, 606

eating to obtain energy and chemical building blocks, 606–607

in species interaction webs, 889

Heterotypy, 291–292

Heterozygote advantage, 316–317

Heterozygote deficiency, 309

Heterozygotes

defined, 153

hierarchy of dominance, 158–159

test crosses, 154, 155

Heterozygous carriers, 158

Hexapods, 476, 492–493, 495

Hexoses, 27, 124, 125

Hibernation, 614–615

Hibiscus cannabinus, 521, 535

High blood pressure, 668

High elevations

and temperature, 852

breathing at, 643

limits of work at, 659–660

High-GC Gram-positives, 384–385

High-performance liquid chromatography, 239

High-throughput sequencing, 235–237

Highly repetitive sequences, 246–247

Himalayan mountains, 361

Himanthalia elongata, 409

Hindbrain, 727, 798

Hindgut, 637, 638–639

Hindgut fermenters, 637

Hippocampus, 713, 729

Hirudo medicinalis, 485

Hispaniola, 537

I-20

Histamine, 813, 814

Histidine, 43

Histone acetyltransferases, 227

Histone deacetylases, 227

Histones, chromatin remodeling, 226–227

History of the Peloponnesian War (Thucydides), 809

HIV. See Human immunodeficiency virus

HIV-1, 334, 335, 337–338

HIV-2, 334, 335

HIV drugs, 212, 825

Hoatzin, 316

Holdfast, 408, 421

Holly, 883

Holometabolous insects, 495, 496, 497

Holoparasites, 544

Holoprosencephaly, 787, 806

Home ranges

behavioral partitioning, 841–842

defined, 842

See also Geographic range

Homeobox, 287–288

Homeodomain, 288

Homeostasis, 610–612

Homeotherms/Homeothermy

body temperature and thermoregulation, 610–611, 613–614

energy costs, 612–613

negative-feedback control, 619–620

Homeotic genes, 288–289

Homeotic mutations, 285

Homing pigeons, 835–836

Hominids, 515–517

Hominoids, 374

Homo, 515–517

Homo erectus, 515–516

Homo ergaster, 516

Homo floresiensis, 516

Homo habilis, 515, 516

Homo neanderthalensis, 5, 172, 517

Homo sapiens, 5, 517

See also Humans

Homogeneous Age, 861

“Homogenocene,” 861

Homogentisic acid, 195

Homogentisic acid oxidase, 195

Homologous features, 327–328

Homologous pairs (homologous chromosomes)

crossing over and recombination, 162–164

in meiosis, 140–145

in mitosis, 131

nondisjunction, 145

Homologous recombination, gene inactivation and, 262–263

Homologs, 131

Homoplasies, 328

Homospory, 431, 432

Homozygotes

defined, 153

test crosses, 154, 155

“Homunculus,” 788

Honey bees

eusociality, 840

perception of ultraviolet wavelengths, 723

sperm storage in queens, 782

thermoregulation, 613, 614

waggle dance, 837

Hooded mergansers, 344

Hopkins, William, 612

Hopping behavior, and ATP production in toads and frogs, 832–833

Horizons, 540

Horizontal cells, 720, 721

Horizontal gene transfer, 167–169

Horizontal stems, 531, 532, 585, 586

Hormone-based contraception, 781

Hormone deficiency diseases, 745–746

Hormone receptors, 737–738, 778

Hormones

actions on a target cell, 739

carrier proteins, 740

defined, 95, 557, 736

distance of action, 736

half-lives, 739

peripheral activation, 740

pulsed secretion, 743

receptor proteins, 737–738, 778

sequence of hormonal signaling, 739–740

Horns, directional selection in cattle, 311–312

Hornworts, 425, 426

Horse chestnut, 444

Horsehair worms, 476, 489–490

Horseshoe crabs, 491–492

Horsetails, 429–431

House mice

evolution of behavior, 829

See also Mice

Hoverfly, 894

Howard, L. O., 873

Hox genes

functions of, 286, 287

loss of forelimbs in snakes and, 292

spatial organization, 289

structure of, 287–288

Human behavior

neural basis of, 828

the problem of determinism, 829–830

Human-dominated ecosystems, 861, 862

Human embryos

development, 803

embryonic stem cells, 279

programmed cell death during morphogenesis, 284

Human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2), 148

Human genome

characteristics, 244

compared to the Neanderthal genome, 192

endogenous retroviruses, 398

key facts about, 247–248

potential benefits to medicine, 248–250

size, 317

transposons, 247, 248

Human Genome Project, 235, 236

Human growth hormone (hGH), 267, 267

Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), 397

alternative splicing in, 229

course of infection, 824–825

HIV-1, 334, 335, 337–338

HIV-2, 334, 335

life cycle, 225–226

phylogenetic analysis, 334, 335

protease inhibitors and, 212

Human Microbiome Project, 391

Human papillomavirus (HPV), 129, 148

Humans

allometric growth, 804

ancient DNA, 172

blastocyst implantation, 793, 794

brain evolution, 516

contraceptive methods, 781–782

digestive system, 636

effect of stabilizing selection on birth weight, 311

evolution, 374, 514–517

evolutionary relationship to chimpanzees, 42

excretory system, 753

eye, 717–721

gestation, 803

global impact on ecological systems, 861–862

heritability of height, 162

impact on biogeochemical cycles, 921–922, 923, 924–926

karyotype, 134–135

knockout mouse models of genetic diseases, 263

localized function and mapped regions in the cerebral hemispheres, 728–730

menstruation and the menstrual cycle, 778–779

microbiomes and, 391–392

milk digestion, 634–635

muscular segmentation, 475

pedigrees, 157–158

population growth and the Earth’s carrying capacity, 875–876

puberty, 746–747, 781, 869, 870

role in global warming and climate change, 928

sex determination in, 775

sex-linked inheritance of red–green color blindness, 166

sexual development, 746–747

Humerus, 292–293

Humidic terrestrial animals, 759

Hummingbird clearwing moth, 681

Humoral immune response

AIDS and, 824

antibody activation of defense mechanisms, 821–822

antibody structure and binding of antigens, 819–820

generation of antibody diversity, 820–821

phases of, 817–818

plasma cells, 819

suppression by regulatory T cells, 824

T-helper cells and, 823

Humus, 540

Hunchback protein, 286

Hurricanes, 927

Huxley, Thomas, 448

Hyacinth macaw, 894

Hyalophora cecropia, 748

Hybrid infertility, 353

Hybrid vigor, 160, 586

Hybrid zones, 354–355

Hybridization

lateral gene transfer, 319

prevention by prezygotic isolating mechanisms, 351–353

selection against through postzygotic isolating mechanisms, 351, 353–354

Hybrids

in agriculture, 586–587

defined, 152

monohybrid crosses, 152–153

in nucleic acid hybridization, 200

Hydrochloric acid, 637

Hydrogen

covalent bonding capacity, 22

electronegativity, 23

Hydrogen bonds

in DNA, 177

formation and properties, 22, 23–24

in proteins, 45, 46, 47

Hydrogen peroxide, 72, 591

Hydroid, 426

Hydrolagus colliei, 504

Hydrolases, 70

Hydrolysis, 26, 70–71

Hydrophilic molecules, 24

Hydrophobic interactions, 22

in phospholipid bilayers, 30, 31

in proteins, 47

Hydrophobic molecules, 24

Hydroponics, 538–539

Hydrostatic skeletons, 473, 690–691

Hydrothermal vents, 390, 396, 856

Hydroxyl group, 25

Hydrozoans, 478–480

Hymenoptera, 495

Hyperaccumulators, 601–602

Hyperosmotic regulators, 756, 757–758

Hyperpolarization, 706

Hypersensitive response, 592

Hypertension, 668

Hyperthermophilic bacteria, 385

Hypertonic solutions, 88

Hypertrophy, 694

Hyphae, 451–452

Hypoblast, 792, 794, 795–796, 803

I-21

“Hypophysis.” See Pituitary gland

Hyposmotic regulators, 756–757

Hypothalamic neurosecretory cells, 740–742

Hypothalamo–hypophysial portal system, 741–742, 776

Hypothalamus

hypothalamus–pituitary–adrenal cortex axis, 742–743

major hormones and their actions, 744

pituitary–hypothalamus connections and interactions, 740–743

puberty and the secretion of gonadotropin-releasing hormone, 747

regulation of mammalian reproduction, 776, 777

Hypothalamus–pituitary–adrenal cortex (HPA) axis, 742–743

Hypotheses, 12–13

Hypotonic solutions, 89

Hyracoidea, 514

Hyracotherium leporinum, 371

Hyraxes, 514

I

I band, 683, 684

Ibuprofen, 37

“Ice ages,” 374

Ice caps, 855

Ice-crawlers, 495

Identical twins, 847

IgA, 820

IgD, 820

IgE, 820

IgG, 820

IgM, 820

Igneous rocks, 359

Ignicoccus, 390

Ilex opaca, 883

Illicium floridanum, 445

Ilyanassa, 796

Image-forming eyes, 717–721

Imbibition, 556

Immediate system of ATP supply, 691, 692

Immigration, 876–878

Immune deficiency disorders, 824–825

Immunodeficiency viruses

molecular clock analysis, 337–338

phylogenetic analysis, 334, 335

Immunoglobulins

antigen binding, 819–820

classes of, 820

mechanisms of diversity, 820–821

structure, 819

See also Antibodies

Immunological memory, 816–817, 825–826

Immunology. See Animal defense systems

Impala antelopes, 827, 840

Imperfect flowers, 439, 574–575

Implantation

of the blastocyst, 777, 793, 794

delayed, 782–783

Imprinting. See Behavioral imprinting; Genomic imprinting

Impulse. See Action potentials; Nerve impulse

In vitro evolution, 321, 322

Inbreeding, mechanisms to prevent in plants, 576

Incomplete cleavage, 790, 792, 793

Incomplete dominance, 159

Incomplete metamorphosis, 495

Incus, 717, 718

Independent assortment

described, 144

genetic linkage and recombination, 162–164

Mendel’s law of, 154–156

Indeterminate growth, 526

Indian Ocean, 378

Indian Plate, 361

Indigo buntings, 831

Indirect development, 804–805

Indole-3-acetic acid, 559, 561

See also Auxin

Induced mutations, 189–190

Induced ovulation, 768, 777–778, 784

Induced plant defenses, 590–593, 594–596

Induced pluripotent stem cells (iPS cells), 279

Inducers, 217, 280–282

Inducible enzymes, 618

Inducible genes, 217, 222

Inducible operons, 218–220

Inducible promoters, 265

Induction

defined, 797

in development, 280–282

of the neural tube, 797–800, 801

primary embryonic induction, 799

Industrial biotechnology, 253

Industrial nitrogen fixation, 923

Infection thread, 542

Inferior vena cava, 668

Inflammation, 813–814

Information. See Genetic information

Inflorescence meristems, 579–580

Inflorescences, 439, 440

Influenza A virus, 397

Influenza epidemics, 298, 323

Influenza viruses, 298, 322–323, 397

Information

and genetic systems, 9

during development, 790

See also Bioinformatics, Genetic

information, Genome sequencing

Information storage, 9

Infrared wavelengths

and greenhouse effect, 926–927

perception of, 722–723

Ingroup, 329

Inheritance

blending and particulate hypotheses, 151

“chromosomal theory,” 173

cytoplasmic, 166–167

hemophilia, 150

human pedigrees, 157–158

law of segregation, 153–154

Mendelian, 151–158

probability and, 156–157

sex-linked, 164–165, 166

Inhibin, 779

Inhibiting hormones (IHs), 742, 743, 744

Inhibition, as an experimental manipulation, 76

Inhibitors, of receptors, 97

Inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (IPSPs), 712–713

Inhibitory synapses, 712

Initiation

of transcription, 198, 199

of translation, 208

Innate defenses

barriers and local agents, 812

cell signaling and, 810, 811, 813

compared to adaptive defenses, 811

defined, 810

inflammation, 813–814

overview, 810, 812

Inner cell mass, 793, 794, 795–796

Inner ear, 717–718, 719

Innervation

defined, 701

of muscle fibers, 685, 686

Inorganic fertilizers, 541

Insect wings

development, 289–290

evolution, 495–496

Insecticides, produced by genetically modified plants, 268–269

Insects

of the Carboniferous and Permian, 357

effect of atmospheric oxygen concentrations on body size, 357, 365, 366, 374

effects of body size on singing, 833

estimated number of existing species, 469

excretion of nitrogenous wastes, 756

flight and wing evolution, 495–496

flight muscles, 681, 696, 697

hormonal regulation of molting, 747–748

key features, 494

leg evolution, 291–292

major groups, 494–495

Malpighian tubules and urine formation, 764–766

metamorphosis, 495

orientation by a “polarization compass,” 837

plant defenses against herbivory, 593–597

thermoregulation, 613, 614

tracheal breathing systems, 653–654

urine/plasma ratio, 754

wing development, 289–290

Insertion mutations, 313, 820

Instars, 495

Insulin

medical uses, 267

produced through biotechnology, 266

regulation of blood nutrient levels, 640, 641, 744

structure, 738

Insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1), 251

Insulin receptors, 738

Integral membrane proteins, 83, 85

Integrase, 398

Integuments, 433–434, 435, 437, 577

Intercostal muscles, 655, 656, 657

“Intercropping,” 914

Interferons, 813

Interglacial periods, 362

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), 932

Interleukin-10, 824

Intermediate filaments, 73–74

Intermediate mesoderm, 800, 801

Internal environment

in animal innate defenses, 812–813

homeostasis, 610

interstitial fluid and tissue fluids, 609

Internal fertilization, 773–774

Internal juglar vein, 668

Internal membranes, of prokaryotic cells, 65

International Geophysical Year (IGY), 916, 932

Interneurons

function of, 724

spinal reflexes, 727

Interphase, 133, 134, 136

Interspecific competition

effect on fitness, 884

effect on species’ distributions, 887, 888

evolution and, 892, 893, 894

rarity advantage and species coexistence, 888–889

Interspecific interactions

classification by impact on fitness, 883–884

defined, 883

effect of environmental conditions on, 884–885

effects on per capita growth rates, 886

effects on population dynamics, 886–887

effects on species’

distributions, 887, 888

fungal cultivation by leaf-cutter ants, 882, 883, 884, 896–897

rarity advantage and species coexistence, 888–889

See also Species interactions

I-22

Interstitial cells, 736, 772, 776

Interstitial fluid

fluid compartments, 615–616

internal environment and, 609

open circulatory systems, 664, 665

Intertidal biomes, 856

Intertidal zone, 857

Intracellular digestive enzymes, 636

Intracellular fluid, 615

Intracellular receptors, 96

Intraluminal digestive enzymes, 636

Intraspecific competition

evolution and the increase of carrying capacity, 892, 893

impact on population growth, 885–886

resource partitioning and, 888

Intrauterine devices (IUDs), 781

Introduced species, 861–862 (see also Invasive species)

Introns, 200–202, 246

Invasive species, 891–892

Invasiveness, of pathogenic bacteria, 394

Inversions, 189

Invertebrates, inducible enzymes, 618

Iodine and iodine deficiency, 629, 745–746

Ion channel receptors, 97

Ion channels

action potentials and, 707–708

evolution in sodium channels, 321

membrane potentials and, 703–706

plant uptake of ions, 546–547

types and mechanisms, 89

See also Gated ion channels; Ligand-gated ion channels; Voltage-gated ion channels

Ion exchange, plant nutrient uptake and, 540–541

Ionic attractions, 22, 24–25

Ionic interactions, in proteins, 45, 47

Ionizing radiation, as a mutagen, 190

Ionotropic receptor cells

description of, 715

stretch receptor cells, 716

Ionotropic receptors, 712

Ions, membrane potentials and, 702–706

IPEX disease, 824

Iridium, 363, 364

Iridoid glycosides, 590

Iris (of the eye), 719, 720

Iron

as an electron acceptor, 113

as an enzyme cofactor, 52

in animal nutrition, 629, 682

binding by ferritin, 231

Irreversible inhibition, 54

Island biogeography, 907–908, 909, 911–912

Islets of Langerhans, 640

Isolating mechanisms

postzygotic, 351, 353–354

prezygotic, 351–353, 354, 356

Isoleucine, 43

Isomorphic alternation of generations, 415

Isopods, 493

Isoptera, 495

Isosmotic animals, 756

Isotonic solutions, 89

Isotopes, 19, 190, 191

Isozymes, 57

Iteroparous animals, 784

Ixodes scapularis, 864

See also Black-legged ticks

J

Jackson’s chameleon, 509

Jacob, François, 218, 291

Japanese horseshoe crab, 810

Jasmonic acid (jasmonate), 591, 595

Jawed fishes, fins, 503, 504

Jawless fishes, 501–503

Jaws, evolution in vertebrates, 503

Jelly coat, 774

Jellyfishes, 478–480

Jointed appendages/limbs

arthropods, 488, 491

countercurrent heat exchange, 674–675

crustaceans, 494

evolution in vertebrates, 505

evolutionary significance, 474

forelimb loss in snakes, 292

leg evolution in insects, 291–292

Joints, 689

Jones, Clive, 864

Joule, 625

Juan de Fuca plate, 361

Jumping bristletails, 494–495

Jurassic Park, 172

Jurassic period, 360–361, 370, 373

Juvenile hormone, 748

Juxtacrine signals, 95, 96

K

Kalanchoe, 585, 586

Kale, 303

Kangaroo rats, 759–760, 869

Kaposi’s sarcoma, 824–825

Karenia, 401

Karyogamy, 436, 459, 460, 461, 462

Karyotype, 134–135

Keeling, Dave, 916, 932

Keeling curve, 927, 928, 932

Kelp forests, 856

Kenaf, 521, 535

Keratin, 73

Keto group, 25α-Ketoglutarate, 117

Kickxellomycotin, 459

Kidneys

defined, 753

nitrogen excretion and, 755

regulation of the composition of body fluids, 752–755

urine production, 760–766

variation in range of action across animals groups, 754

Kilocalories, 625, 626

Kimura, Motoo, 313

Kinesin, 75, 76, 135

Kinetic energy, 31–32

Kinetochore microtubules, 135, 136

Kinetochores, 134, 135, 136, 137

Kinetoplastids, 410, 411–412

Kingdoms, 339

Kinorhynchs, 476, 490

Kinosternon subrubrum, 612

Kitasato, Shibasaburo, 815

Kiwis, 511

Klebsiella, 882

Klok, C. Jaco, 366

Knee-jerk reflex, 726–727

“Knockout” experiments, 263

Koch, Robert, 393

Koch’s postulates, 393

Kohlrabi, 303

Komodo dragon, 510

Korarchaeota, 388, 390

Krakatau, 363, 899–900, 901–903

Krebs cycle. See Citric acid cycle

Krogh, August, 646

Kuwait, 271

Kyoto Protocol, 932

L

Labrador retrievers, 160

Lac i gene, 219

Lac operon, 217–219

Lace lichens, 467

Lacewings, 495

Lactase, 634–635, 638

Lactic acid (lactate), 115, 116, 617

Lactic acid fermentation, 115, 116

Lactose

digestion, 634–635

transcriptional regulation of metabolism in E. coli, 216–218

LacZ gene, 260, 266

Lady slipper, 440

Lagging strand, in DNA replication, 183

Lagomorpha, 514

Lake Malawi cichlids, 343, 352

Lamarck, Jean-Baptiste, 299

Lampreys, 502, 503, 805

Lampshells, 483

Lancelets, 476, 500

Land plants

adaptations in the colonization of land, 423–428

evolution and diversification, 428–432

in the evolution of plants, 422

life cycles, 424–425

major groups, 421, 424

Landis, E. M., 675–676

Landscapes, 7, 846

Language, processing in the human brain, 729–730

Langurs, 315–316

Laqueus, 483

Large intestine, 637, 638–639

Larus argentatus, 828

Larvaceans, 500

Larvae, 804–805

Larynx, 654, 655

Late embryogenesis abundant (LEA) proteins, 599, 600

Lateral gene transfer

in bacteria, 167–169

description and advantages of, 319

discordant prokaryote gene trees and, 382–383

Lateral meristems, 527

Lateral plate mesoderm, 800–801, 802–803

Lateral roots, 529, 530

Latex, 596–597

Laticifers, 596–597

Latimeria chalumnae, 505

Latimeria menadoensis, 505

Latitudinal gradients

in net primary productivity, 917–919

in species richness, 906–907

Latitudinal temperature gradients

biomes and, 854

net primary productivity and, 918

Laurasia, 373, 859

Law of diffusion for gases, 645

Law of independent assortment

description of, 154–156

genetic linkage and recombination, 162–164

Law of mass action, 56, 97

Law of segregation, 153–154

Laws of thermodynamics, 32–34

LDL receptors, 94, 95

Le Chatelier’s principle, 56

LEA proteins, 599, 600

Leaching, 540

Leading strand, in DNA replication, 179, 182–183

Leaf-cutter ants

fungal cultivation by, 882, 883, 884, 896–897

in interaction webs, 889

nitrogen-fixing organisms and, 924

plant defensive compounds and, 894

Leafhoppers, 495

LEAFY gene, 580, 584

LEAFY protein, 285

Learning

defined, 830

effects on animal behavior, 830–831

synaptic plasticity and, 713–714

Leaves

abscission, 562

evolution of, 431

flowering stimulus and, 582, 583

function, 522

modifications, 531, 532

parasitic fungi, 454

primordia, 527, 530

salt glands, 601

stomatal control of water loss and gas exchange, 550–551

structural adaptations in xerophytes, 598

I-23

structure and function, 531

Lee, Ing-Ming, 588

Leeches, 484, 485

Left atrium, 668

Left ventricle, 668

Leghemoglobin, 544

Legionella pneumophila, 381

Legumes, nitrogen fixation, 542

Leiobunum rotundum, 492

Leishmania major, 411

Leishmaniasis, 411

Lemurs, 514

Lens, 719, 720

Leopard frogs

atrazine experiments, 14

temporal isolation, 351, 352

Lep gene, 848

Lepas anatifera, 493

Lepidoptera, 495

Lepidosaurs, 508–510

Lepiotaceae, 882

Leptin, 639–640

Leptonycteris curasoae, 513

Leptosiphon, 336, 337

Leptospira, 381

Lesser grain borer, 872

Leucine, 43

Leucine zipper, 232

Leukocytes, 677

See also White blood cells

Levin, Donald, 353–354

Lewis, Cynthia, 417

Leydig cells, 736, 772, 776

Libellula depressa, 497

Lice, 495

Lichens, 455–456, 457, 466, 467

Licking and grooming behavior, 831–832

Life

characteristics of biological organization, 6–9

evolutionary tree of life, 4–5

flow, exchange, storage, and use of genetic information, 9–10

generalization of knowledge and model organisms, 5–6

major steps in the origin and evolution of, 2–4

presence of water and, 18

Life cycles

amphibians, 507–508

animal reproduction and, 782–784

fungal, 458–465

modes of cell reproduction, 130–132

Life expectancy, 869

Life histories

description of, 867–868

diversity in, 868–869

effect of resources and physical conditions on, 869–870

impact of global climate change on, 929–930, 931

species’ distributions and, 870–872

Life-history tradeoffs, 870

Ligand-gated ion channels

as ion channel receptors, 97

ionotropic receptors, 712

structure and function, 89, 705, 706

Ligand-gated receptors, at neuromuscular junctions, 711

Ligands, 89, 95, 97

Light

absorption by chlorophyll, 121–122

detection in visual systems, 718–722

and Earth’s radiation balance, 926–927

photobiology, 120–121

photochemistry, 119–120

photomorphogenesis in plants, 567–570

as a resource, 869

Light-harvesting complexes, 121–122

Light microscopes, 62

Light reactions, 119

Light sheet microscopy, 790

Lilium, 574

Lima (British ship), 378

Limbs. See Jointed appendages/limbs

Limestone, 418, 924

Limiting resource, 884

Limnetic zone, 857

Limosa lapponica, 837–838

Limulus polyphemus, 492

LIN-3, 281, 282, 283

Lin mutations, 230

Lindley, John, 420

Lineage, 326, 345

Lineage species concept, 345

Linnaean classification, 338–339

Linnaean Society of London, 300

Linnaeus, Carolus, 338, 344

Linoleic acid, 30, 627

Lipases, 635

Lipid monolayers, 389

Lipid-soluble vitamins, 628

Lipids

as animal storage compounds, 626

in archaea membranes, 388–389

catabolic interconversions, 116

defined, 29

digestion, 635, 638

as food molecules, 626

macromolecular structure, 26

membrane lipids, 83–85

phospholipids, 30, 31

triglycerides, 29–30

Lipoprotein aggregates, 638

Littoral zone, 857

Litzgus, Jacqueline, 612

Liver

in digestion, 636, 637

endocrine control of, 639

epinephrine-activated glycogen breakdown, 99, 100–101

Liver enzymes, 618

Liverworts, 425, 426

Lizards

breathing system, 652

impact of global climate change on, 871, 930–931

key features, 508, 510

Loam, 540

Lobe-limbed vertebrates, 504, 505–506

Loboseans, 412

Lobsters

circulatory system, 664, 665

hearts, 667

Locomotion

appendages and, 474

bipedal, 516

body cavity and, 473

body segmentation and, 473–474, 475

lophotrochozoans, 481

measuring the efficiency and energy costs of, 605

Locus, 162

Locusta, 832

Locusta migratoria, 593

Locusts, 593

Loggerhead sea turtles, 838

Long-day plants, 581–582

Long-nosed insectivores, 514

Long-tailed widowbird, 306, 307

Long-term memory, 232

Long-Term Watershed Protection Plan (New York), 910

Longistigma caryae, 552

Loop of Henle, 763, 765

Lophodytes cucullatus, 344

Lophophores, 480–481, 483

Lophotrochozoans

annelids, 484–485

brachiopods and phoronids, 483–484

bryozoans, 481

cleavage, 791

flatworms, 481–482

key features, 480–481

major subgroups, 476

mollusks, 485–487

ribbon worms, 482, 483

rotifers, 482

Lorenz, Konrad, 830–831

Loriciferans, 476, 490

Lorises, 514

Loss-of-function mutations, 187, 188, 285

Low-density lipoproteins (LDLs), 94–95

Low-GC Gram positives, 384, 385

LRT retrotransposons, 246, 247

“Lucy,” 515, 516

Luehea seemannii, 469

Lung surfactant, 652

Lungfishes, 317, 505–506

Lungs

gas exchange membranes, 646

structure and function, 646, 647

surface area of gas exchange membranes, 649

ventilation, 646–647, 651–652

See also Mammalian lungs

Luteinizing hormone (LH)

actions of, 744

menstrual cycle, 778, 779

regulation of mammalian reproduction, 776, 777–779, 781, 784

in sexual development, 746–747

support of spermatogenesis, 781

as a tropic hormone, 741

Lycoperdon perlatum, 453

Lycophytes, 429, 431

Lycopodiophyta, 424

Lycopodium, 431

Lycopodium annotinum, 429

Lycosa, 492

Lyell, Charles, 300

Lymantria dispar, 864

Lyme disease, 864, 878, 880

Lymph nodes, 676

Lymphatic system, 676

Lymphocytes

diversity and clonal selection, 816, 817

functions of, 811

specificity, 816

types of, 811

Lymphoma tumors, 824–825

Lynch, Carol, 829

Lysine, 43

Lysogenic phase, 221

Lysosomes, 70–71

Lysozyme, 812

Lysozyme evolution, 314–316

Lythrum alatum, 891

Lythrum salicaria, 891

Lytic life cycle, 221

M

M band, 683, 684

M checkpoint, 139

M phase, 133, 134, 138

MacArthur, Robert H., 907

Macrobiotus sapiens, 491

Macrocystis, 408

Macrogametophyte, 442, 443

Macromolecules

carbohydrates, 27–29 (see also Carbohydrates)

formation, 26

lipids, 29–31 (see also Lipids)

movement across biological membranes, 93–95

See also Nucleic acids; Proteins

Macronucleus, 414, 415

Macronutrients, in plant nutrition, 538

Macroperipatus torquatus, 491

Macrophages, 811, 814, 817

Macroscelidea, 514

Macular degeneration, 263–264

“Magerwiesen,” 855

Magnesium, 629

Magnetic field, animal orientation and, 836, 837, 838

Magnolia, 445

Magnoliids, 445

Magnuson, John, 661

Maidenhair tree, 436

Maimonides, Moses, 150

Maintenance methyltransferase, 228

I-24

Maize. See Corn

Major grooves, of DNA, 177, 178

Major histocompatibility complex (MHC), 822–823, 824

Malaria, 415–416, 468

Malate, 111

Malate dehydrogenase, 111

Malay Archipelago, 857–858

Males

primary and accessory reproductive organs, 770

secondary sexual characteristics, 770–771

sex organs in mammals, 780–781

Malleus, 717, 718

Malnutrition, 628–629, 832

Malpighi, Marcello, 552

Malpighian tubules, 764–766

Malthus, Thomas, 876

“Malting,” 560–561

Maltose, 126

Malus, 447

Mammalian lungs

mechanism of ventilation, 656, 657

neural control of breathing rhythm, 656, 657

structure and respiratory gas exchange, 654, 655

tidal, respiratory minute, and residual volumes, 656

Mammals

breathing system, 654–659

circulatory system, 666

ears and hearing, 717–718, 719

eutherians, 512–514

evolution, 511

excretion of nitrogenous wastes, 756

forebrain evolution, 727–728

foregut fermentation and lysozyme evolution, 314–316

hearts, 667–671, 672

hibernation, 614–615

hormonal regulation of physiological systems, 744–747

hormonal regulation of reproduction, 776–781, 784

innate and adaptive defenses, 811

key features, 511–512

localized function and mapped regions in the cerebral hemispheres, 728–730, 731

marsupials, 512, 513

olfactory receptor cells, 716–717

positive feedback in the birth process, 620

seasonal reproductive cycles, 784

stem cells, 277–279

thermoregulation, 613–614

tidally ventilated lungs, 652

transformation experiments with mammalian cells, 174, 175

urine/plasma ratio, 754

urine production by the kidneys, 763–764, 765

Mammary glands, 512, 780

Mandibles, 492–493

Mandibulates, 492–494

Manduca sexta, 593

Manganese, 629

Mangold, Hilde, 799

Mangrove forests, 856

Mangroves, 599

Mannose, 27

Manta, 630

Manta rays, 630

Mantidfllies, 495

Mantids, 495

Mantle, 485, 486, 487

Mantodea, 495

Mantophasmatodea, 495

Map units, 164

Marchantia polymorpha, 426

Marine annelids, 518

Marine biomes, 856–857

Marine invertebrates, isosmotic relationship to their environment, 756

Marmota monax, 615

Marrella splendens, 369

Mars, 18

Marsilea mutica, 429

Marsupials, 512, 513

Maryland Mammoth tobacco, 580

Mass extinctions

of the Cretaceous, 363, 373

defined, 361

meteorites and, 363

of the Ordovician, Devonian, and Permian periods, 372, 374

from volcanoes, 363

Mass number, 19

Mass spectrometry, 238, 239

Mast cells, 811, 813, 814

“Master clock,” 621

“Master gland.” See Pituitary gland

Mastocarpus papillatus, 423

Mate choice, behavioral isolation and, 352, 353

Maternal care, effect on rat pups, 831–832

Maternal effect genes, 286, 287

Mating calls, behavioral isolation in frogs and, 351–352

Matter

atoms and molecules, 21

cycling of, through ecological systems, 920–921, 920

Earth as a closed system with respect to, 920

need for matter by organisms, 606–607, 627–629

See also Materials; Matter as related to energy

Matter as related to energy, 6, 606–607, 625–627

Matthaei, Henirich, 203

Matz, Mikhail, 325, 341

Maxillipeds, 494

Maximum likelihood method, 332

Mayer, Ernst, 344

Mayflies, 495, 496, 497, 805

MC1R gene, 192

mecA gene, 194

Mechanical isolation, 351

Mechanical weathering, 540

Mechanoreceptors

auditory hair cells, 717–718, 719

on the nose tentacles of star-nosed moles, 699

stretch receptor cells, 716

Mecoptera, 495

Medicinal leech, 485

Medicine

advances in, and human population growth, 870

genome sequencing and, 250–251

human genomics and, 248–250

molecular evolution and, 322, 323

products produced through biotechnology, 266–267

See also Cancer therapies

Mediterranean climate, 854

Medulla oblongata, 656, 657, 659, 727

Medusa, 478, 479

Megagametophyte

in angiosperms, 575

in heterospory, 431, 432

Megaloptera, 495

Meganeuropsis permiana, 357

Megaphyll, 431

Megascops asio, 830, 831

Megasporangia

in angiosperms, 439

in heterospory, 432

in seed plants, 433–434

Megasporangium, 437, 438

Megaspores

in heterospory, 431, 432

in seed plants, 433

Megastrobilus, 437, 438

Meiosis

advantages and disadvantages of sexual recombination, 318–319

compared to mitosis, 141

crossing over and genetic recombination, 162–164

crossing over and independent assortment, 140, 142–145

events of, 141, 142

gametogenesis in animal reproduction, 771

generation of genetic diversity in sexual reproduction, 130–131

meiotic chromosomal errors, 145–146

overall functions of, 141

reduction of chromosome number, 140, 141, 142

in sexual life cycles, 130–131

spontaneous mutations, 189

Meiosis I, 140, 141, 142, 143–144

Meiosis II, 140, 141, 142, 143

Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH), 741, 744

Melanopsin, 722

Melatonin, 737, 744

Membrane-associated digestive enzymes, 636

Membrane potentials

action potentials, 707–708

defined, 703

graded or all-or-none changes in, 706–707

measuring, 703

of photoreceptor cells, 720

principles of electricity, 702–703

summation, 712–713

Membrane receptors, 96–98

Membranes

structure of phospholipid bilayers, 30, 31

See also Biological membranes; Cell membrane(s); Extraembryonic membranes; Gas exchange membranes

Memory, 713–714

Memory cells, 817

Menadione, 682

Mendel, Gregor, 151–157, 301

Menstrual cycle, 778–779

Menstruation, 778

Meristem culture, 586

Meristem identity genes, 580, 584

Meristems

in plant growth and development, 522, 527, 528, 529, 530

as stem cells, 276–277

See also Apical meristems; Floral meristems; Ground meristem

Merriam’s kangaroo rat, 885

Mesenchymal stem cells, 278

Mesenchyme, 473, 474

Mesoderm

differentiation, 800–801

in gastrulation, 794, 795, 796, 797

tissues and organs formed from, 797

in triploblastic embryos, 472

Mesoglea, 477

Mesophyll, 531

Mesozoic era, 360–361, 373

Mesquite, 845, 889

Messenger RNA (mRNA)

alternative splicing, 229, 230

analysis of expression patterns with DNA microarrays, 264–265

as cytoplasmic determinants, 280

degradation caused by microRNAs, 230, 231

formation in transcription, 197–202

genetic code, 203–206

introns and exons in precursor RNA, 200–201

I-25

processing before translation, 201–202

regulation of translation, 230–231

translation of, 206–210

Messner, Reinhold, 643

Metabolic equivalent of task (MET), 626

Metabolic pathways

enzymes and the regulation of, 53–57

feedback inhibition, 55, 56, 117

general principles governing, 106

of prokaryotes, 394–395

Metabolic pool, 117

Metabolic rate

of birds, 511

body size and, 609

circulatory function and, 662

defined, 607

effect of physical activity on, 608–609

of homeothermy, 612–613

quantifying, 607–608

Metabolic systems, 116–118

Metabolic water, 760

Metabolism

anabolic and catabolic reactions, 32

defined, 32

enzymes and the regulation of, 53–57

See also Anabolic reactions/pathways; Catabolic reactions/pathways

Metabolomes, 239, 250

Metabolomics, 239, 250

Metabotropic receptor cells

description of, 715

olfactory receptor cells, 716–717

photoreceptors, 718–719, 720, 722

Metabotropic receptors, 712

Metacarpals, 292–293

Metacentric chromosomes, 346

Metagenomics, 241

Metal ions

as electron acceptors, 113

as enzyme cofactors, 52

Metamorphosis, 495, 805

Metaphase

meiosis I, 141, 143–144

meiosis II, 142

mitosis, 135, 136, 137, 141

Metaphase plate, 137

Metapopulation, 876

Metarhizium anisopliae, 468

Meteorites, 363, 364

Methane

in the carbon cycle, 924, 925, 926

as a greenhouse gas, 927, 928

produced by methanogens, 389

Methanocaldococcus, 65

Methanogens, 389

Methicillin, 169

“Methicillin resistant S. aureus” (MRSA), 194, 213

Methionine, 43

Methyl salicylate, 592

Methylation, 227–2295-Methylcytosine, 190–191, 227–229

Methyltransferases, 255

Metzgar, Lee, 830

Mexican blue spiny lizards, 871, 872

Mexican Plateau, 859

Mexico. See U.S.–Mexico Borderlands

Mice

evolution of behavior, 829

“knockout” models, 263

Ob/ob mice, 640, 848

seasonal reproduction, 784

white-footed mice, 830, 841, 864

Microbial eukaryotes

defined, 405

endosymbionts, 416, 417

pathogenic, 415–416

Microbial rhodopsin, 390

Microbiomes, 391–392, 632, 846

Microcirculation, 663–664, 673–674

Microfilaments

in cell movement, 76

contractile ring, 135

cytoplasmic segregation in the egg and, 280

structure and function, 73, 74

Microgametophyte

in angiosperms, 442, 443, 575–576

in heterospory, 432

Micronucleus, 414, 415

Micronutrients, in plant nutrition, 538, 539

Microorganisms

nutritionally important animal–microbe symbioses, 630–632, 641

See also Bacteria; Gut microbiome; Prokaryotes

Microphylls, 429, 431

Micropyle, 437, 438

Microraptor gui, 511

MicroRNAs (miRNAs), 229–230, 231, 263

Microscopy, 62

Microsporangia

in angiosperms, 439

in heterospory, 432

in seed plants, 433

Microspores

in heterospory, 431–432

in seed plants, 433

Microsporidia, 459–460

Microstrobilus, 437, 438

Microtubules

cilia and flagella, 74–75

cytoplasmic segregation in the egg and, 280

mitotic spindle, 135

structure and function, 74

Microvilli, 637, 638, 717

Midbrain, 798

Middle ear, 717, 718

Midgut, 637–638, 639

Midgut fermenters, 637

Miescher, Friedrich, 173

Migration

adjustments of migratory behaviors, 828

defined, 838

mechanisms of long-distance migrations, 837–838

orientation by the Earth’s magnetic field, 837

Migratory locusts, 832

Milk

digestion, 634–635

production by humans, 780

production by marsupials, 512

production by prototherians, 512

Milkweeds, 596–597

“Milky seas,” 378

Miller, Stanley, 34, 35

Miller–Urey experiment, 34, 35

Millimeters of mercury (mm Hg), 645

Millipedes, 493

Mimicry, 894, 895

Mimiviruses, 397, 399

Mimulus aurantiacus, 440–441, 442

Mineral nutrients

in animal nutrition, 629, 682

in plant nutrition, 538–541

Mineralocorticoids, 744

Minimal genome, 242, 243

Minor grooves, of DNA, 177, 178

Miscarriages, 145

Mischocuttarus flavitarsis, 497

Mismatch repair, 185

Missense substitutions, 205, 313

See also Nonsynonymous substitutions

Mites, 492

Mitochondria

absence in microsporidia, 459

endosymbiosis in the evolution of, 4, 402, 404

in eukaryotic cells, 66, 67

genetic material and cytoplasmic inheritance, 166–167

in insect flight muscle, 697

structure and function, 71–72

Mitosis

in asexual reproduction, 130

compared to meiosis, 141

defined, 133

products of, 134

prophase, 134–135

stages of, 134, 135, 136–137

Mitosomes, 459–460

Mitotic spindle, 135

Mnemiopsis leidyi, 477

Model organisms

genomes, 243–245

importance to biological research, 6

in transformation, 258

Moderately repetitive sequences, 246, 247

Modularity, in development, 290, 291

Molds, 452, 464

Molecular clocks, 314, 337–338

Molecular evolution

evolution of genome size and organization, 317–318

heterozygote advantage, 316–317

medical uses, 322, 323

molecular clocks, 314, 337–338

neutral theory of, 313–314

types of mutations affecting, 312–313

in vitro evolution and, 321, 322

Molecules, chemical bonds and the formation of, 20–26

Moles, 514

Mollusks

coelom, 480

hemocyanin, 678

key features, 485–487

major subgroups, 476

red tides, 401

undiscovered living species, 518

Molothrus ater, 884

Molting, 487–488, 747–748

Monarch butterflies, 805

Monilophytes, 422, 424, 429–431

Monocots

defined, 446

early shoot development, 557

prop roots, 531, 532

representatives of, 445, 446

root structure, 529, 530

secondary growth, 534

stele, 529

structural characteristics, 522, 523

vascular bundles, 531

Monocytes, 811

Monod, Jacques, 218

Monoecious plants, 439–440

Monoecious species, 574, 575, 576

Monohybrid crosses, 152–153

Monomers, 26

Monophyletic groups, 339

Monosaccharides

absorption in the midgut, 638

defined, 27

glycosidic linkages, 27

polymers of, 27–28

types, 27

Monosomy, 145

Monoterpenes, 594

Monozygotic twins, 228 (see also Identical twins)

Montreal Protocol, 191, 932

Morels, 464

Morgan, Thomas Hunt, 162–165, 166, 301

Morphogenesis

body segmentation in the fruit fly, 285–288

in development, 274

morphogen gradients, 283

organ placement in plants, 284, 285

pattern formation and, 283

programmed cell death, 284

spatial differences in gene expression and, 283

I-26

Morphogens, 283

Morphological species concept, 344, 345

Morphology

evolution of, 291–293

morphological species concept, 344, 345

phylogenetic analyses and, 331

Mortality, 868

Mosaic development, 791

Mosquitoes, 416

Mosses

characteristics of, 425–426

life cycle, 426–428

Moths

diversity in, 496, 497

number of species, 495

olfactory receptor cells of antennae, 717

Motor end-plate. See Neuromuscular junctions

Motor neurons

function of, 724

spinal reflexes, 726–727

Motor proteins

with actin filaments, 73

chromosome movement in mitosis, 135

with microtubules, 75, 76

Motor unit, of prokaryotic flagella, 65

Motrin, 37

Mount Everest, 643, 660

Mount Pinatubo, 363

Mountains, impact on weather, 852–853

Mouth

evolution of vertebrate jaws, 503

origin in animal development, 794, 796

Mouthparts

chelicerae, 491

mandibles, 492–493

MRSA. See “Methicillin resistant S. aureus”

Mucopolysaccharides, 528

Mucoromycotina, 459

Mucosa, 635, 636

Mucus, 812

Mud turtle, 612

Muir, John, 890

“Muir effect,” 890–891

Muller, Hermann Joseph, 319, 346

Muller’s ratchet, 319

Multicellular colonies, 471, 472

Multicellularity

divergence during the Cambrian, 368

in the evolution of life, 4

hierarchical levels of organization, 6

multiple origins in eukaryotes, 405–406

Multinucleate embryos, 285–286

Multiorgan systems, 616–617

Multiple fruits, 444

Multiplicative population growth, 872–876

Multipotency

defined, 275

multipotent stem cells, 278–279

Murphy, James, 215

Mus musculus, 829

Muscle cells

contraction, 681 (see also Muscle contraction)

as excitable cells, 700

excitation, 685, 686

neuromuscular junctions, 710–711

slow oxidative and fast glycolytic cells, 692–693

Muscle contraction

activation, 711

contraction distinguished from shortening, 682

insect flight muscles, 681, 696, 697

sliding-filament theory, 682–688

Muscle fibers

innervation, 685, 686

muscle contraction and, 682–688

neuromuscular junctions, 710–711

structure, 682–684

Muscle precursor cells, 282

Muscles

cardiac muscle, 695 (see also Myocardium)

contraction (see Muscle contraction)

hydrostatic skeletons and, 690–691

insect flight muscles, 681, 696, 697

modified muscle and fish electric organs, 696–697

power output and ATP supply, 691–692

slow oxidative and fast glycolytic cells, 692–693

smooth muscle, 695–696

stretch receptor cells, 716

See also Red swimming muscles; Skeletal muscles

Muscular dystrophy, 251–252

Mushrooms, 452

Musk thistle, 892

Mussels, 487, 630, 895

Mutagens

avoiding mutagenic substances and radiation, 191

defined, 187

induced mutations, 189–190

natural or artificial, 191

transposons as, 242, 243

Mutation rates, 302

Mutations

chromosomal, 188–189

costs and benefits, 191

defined, 186

of DNA, 178

effects on polypeptide sequences, 205–206

evolution and, 4, 9, 191

experimental manipulations, 76

generation of genetic variation and, 158, 302–303, 312–313

Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium and, 308

natural selection and, 304–305

phenotype and, 187

point mutations, 187–188

somatic or germline, 186

spontaneous or induced, 189–190

transposons and, 242, 243, 247

vulnerability of base pairs to, 190–191

Mutualisms

benefits to individuals and, 894–896

effects on fitness, 883, 884

effects on species, 886

fungi and, 456–457

Mutualistic fungi, 455–457 (see also Mycorrhizae)

Myanthus, 420, 447

Mycelium, 451–452

Mycobacterium tuberculosis, 385

Mycoplasma capricolum, 60

Mycoplasma genitalium, 240–241, 242, 243, 244, 317

Mycoplasma mycoides, 242

Mycoplasma mycoides JCVI-syn1.0, 60

Mycoplasmas, 384, 385

Mycorrhizae, 456–457, 466, 896

Myelin, 85, 702

Myelinated axons, 702, 709

Myoblasts, 282

Myocardium

coronary circulatory system, 670–671

description of, 667, 695

mammalian heartbeat, 668–669, 670, 671

MyoD, 282

Myofibrils, 682–684

Myogenic hearts

cardiac cycle, 667–668

chambers, 667, 668

defined, 667

electrocardiograms, 671, 672

heartbeats, 668–670, 671

Myoglobin

gene duplication in the evolution of, 320

globin gene family, 246

in slow oxidative cells, 692=693

Myometrium, 777, 780

Myosin

contractile ring, 135

sliding-filament theory of muscle contraction, 682–688

structure, 684

Myosin filaments

sliding-filament theory of muscle contraction, 682–688

structure, 684–685

in the structure of myofibrils, 682–684

Myostatin, 251–252

Myriapods, 476, 492–493, 518

Myrmecophaga tridactyla, 340

Mytilus edulis, 630, 895

Myxameobas, 413, 414

N

“N-P-K” percentages, 541

Naegleria, 410

Naked mole rats, 840

Nanaloricus mysticus, 490

Nanoarchaeota, 388, 390

Nanos protein, 286

Narcissus, 446

Nasal cavity, 716

Nasal passages, 654, 655

Natural history, 12, 862

Natural killer cells, 811, 813, 822

Natural Resource Conservation Service, 553

Natural selection

actions on quantitative traits, 310–312

adaptations and, 10–11, 304–305

Darwin’s description of, 10

defined, 300

and ecology, 846, 892–896

evolution and, 302

Nautiluses, 487

Navigation

celestial, 831

defined, 834

honey bee waggle dance, 837

trial following and path integration, 834–835

Neandertal Genome Project, 192

Neanderthals, 5, 192

Nearctic biogeographic region, 858, 859, 861

Nebela collaris, 412

Neck evolution, in giraffes, 290

Necrosis, 146

Negative feedback (see also Density dependence)

defined, 8

in endocrine axes, 743

in homeothermy, 619–620

stretch receptor cells and, 716

Negative-sense RNA, 396

Negative-sense single-stranded RNA viruses, 396–397

Nematocysts, 478, 884

Nematodes, 476

genome characteristics, 244–245

key features, 488–489

predatory fungi and, 455, 456

undiscovered living species, 518

See also Caenorhabditis elegans

Nemerteans, 482, 483

Neocallimastigomycota, 459

Neognaths, 511

Neopterans, 495, 496, 497

Neoteny, 506, 516, 517

Neotoma, 903

Neotropical biogeographic region, 858, 859, 861

Nephrons

of amphibians, 761–763

of mammals, 763–764, 765

urine production, 752–753, 760–764, 765

Nereis succinea, 475

I-27

Nerium oleander, 598

Nernst equation, 704–705

Nerve impulse

in cardiac muscle, 695

excitation of muscle fibers, 685, 686

production and propagation, 706–708

See also Action potentials

Nerve nets, 474, 723

Nerves, 701

Nervous systems

action potentials, 702–709 (see also Action potentials)

in animal body plans, 474–475

basis of animal behavior, 828

centralization and cephalization, 723–724

characteristics and interactions of nervous and endocrine control, 733, 734–736, 749

enteric nervous system, 635, 636

glial cells in, 701–702

nerve nets, 723

nerves, 701

neurons in, 700–701

neurotransmitters, 711–712

neurulation, 797–800, 801

pituitary gland–hypothalamus connections and interactions, 740–743

sensory processes, 714–723

synapses, 700, 709–714 (see also Synapses)

types of neurons in, 724

in vertebrates and arthropods, 724–725

See also Autonomic nervous system; Brain; Central nervous system

Net primary productivity (NPP)

defined, 903

energy flow through ecological communities, 903, 904

factors affecting in aquatic ecosystems, 919

latitudinal gradients in, 917–919

as a measure of ecosystem function, 917

species diversity and, 905–906

in the tropics, 906

Netherlands Cancer Institute, 264–265

Netrostoma setouchina, 479

Neural crest cells, 800, 801

Neural groove, 798

Neural plate, 798

Neural tube

holoprosencephaly, 806

induction and differentiation, 797–800, 801

Neurogenic hearts, 671–672

Neuroglia. See Glial cells

Neurohemal organ, 736

Neurohormones, 737

Neurohypophysis. See Posterior pituitary

Neuromuscular junctions

description of, 710–711

excitation of muscle fibers, 685, 686

Neuron-to-neuron synapses, 712–713

Neurons

action potentials, 700, 707–708

anatomical regions, 701

axon hillocks, 706, 713

common features and functions of, 700–701

as excitable cells, 700

function in nervous control, 735

innervation of cells, 701

membrane potentials, 702–707

nerves and, 701

summation of postsynaptic potentials, 712–713

synapses, 709–714 (see also Synapses)

transformation of fibroblasts into, 224

types of, 724

Neuropterida, 495

Neurosecretions, 737

Neurosecretory cells, 736–737, 740–742

Neurotransmitter receptors, 712

Neurotransmitters

categories of, 711–712

at chemical synapses, 709

distance of action, 736

at neuromuscular junctions, 710

Neurulation, 797–800, 801

Neutral theory of molecular evolution, 313–314

Neutrons, 19

Neutrophils, 811

New World monkeys, 515

New York City water supply, 910

Nexin, 75

NFAT proteins, 223

Niacin, 628

Niche, 904

Niche complementarity, 906

Nickel, 539

Nicotinamide adenine dinculeotide phosphate (NADPH), 122, 123

Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH)

in aerobic cellular respiration, 110, 111, 112, 113

as an electron carrier in redox reactions, 107–108

in anaerobic cellular respiration, 115, 116

as a cofactor, 52

coupling of NADH oxidation to ATP production, 108, 111, 112

Nicotine, 594

Nicotine595

Night length, flowering and, 581–582

Niphates digitalis, 648

Nirenberg, Marshall, 203

Nitrate, 395, 922

Nitric oxide, 591, 780

Nitrifiers, 395–396

Nitrite, 395

Nitrobacter, 395, 396

Nitrogen

covalent bonding capacity, 22

electronegativity, 23

global cycle (see Nitrogen cycle)

Nitrogen-14, 358

Nitrogen cycle

global cycling, 922–923, 924, 925

prokaryotes and, 395–396

Nitrogen deposition, 923

Nitrogen fertilizers, 541, 923

Nitrogen fixation

biological, 922, 923

industrial and agricultural, 923

organisms in leaf-cutter nests, 924

plant–bacteria symbioses, 542, 543–544

Nitrogen fixers

prokaryotes, 395

symbiosis with plants, 373

Nitrogenase, 543, 544

Nitrogenous waste excretion, 755–756

Nitrosococcus, 395

Nitrosomonas, 395

Nitrous acid, 190

Nitrous oxide

global warming and, 928

as a greenhouse gas, 927, 928

in nitrogen cycling, 923

Nod factors, 542

Nodes, on phylogenetic trees, 326

Nodes of Ranvier, 709

Noggin, 799

Non-avian reptiles, circulatory system, 666–667

Non-LTR retrotransposons, 246, 247

Noncoding DNA sequences, 318

Noncompetitive inhibitors, 54, 55

Noncovalent bonds, in allosteric enzymes, 54, 55

Noncyclic electron transport, 122–123

Nondisjunction, 145

Nonneural endocrine cells, 736, 737

Nonpolar substances, impact on protein structure, 47

Nonprotein amino acids, 594

Nonrandom mating, impact on genotype or allele frequencies, 306, 307

Nonself, distinguishing from self, 816, 824

Nonsense mutations, 205–206

Nonshivering thermogenesis, 614

Nonsynonymous substitutions defined, 313

evolution of flu strains and, 323

in positive and purifying selection, 314–316

Nonvascular land plants

characteristics of, 425–426

defined, 421

in the evolution of plants, 422

gametophyte and sporophyte, 425

life cycle, 426–428

major groups, 424

Norepinephrine, 726

Norepinephrine (noradrenaline), 739, 744

North American plate, 361

North Atlantic Drift, 851–852

North Atlantic Subtropical Gyre, 838

North Star, 831

Northeast trade winds, 851

Norton, E. F., 643

Nose tentacles, of star-nosed moles, 699, 730, 731

Nostoc punctiforme, 386

Nothofagus, 858–859

Notochord

chordates, 500

evolutionary relationships in animals and, 331, 332

holoprosencephaly, 806

neural tube induction, 797–800, 801

tunicates, 501

Novel communities, 931

Nuclear envelope, 68, 135

Nuclear localization signal (NLS), 212

Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, 239

Nuclear pore, 66

Nuclear transfer experiments, 276

Nucleic acid hybridization, 200–201

Nucleic acids

base pairing, 38–40, 41

defined, 38

excretion of nitrogenous wastes, 755–756

genetic information and, 9

macromolecular structure, 26

nucleotide structure, 38

in the origin and evolution of life, 2

types of, 38

See also Deoxyribonucleic acid; Ribonucleic acid

Nucleoid, 64

Nucleolus

eukaryotic cells, 66, 67

function, 68

Nucleosomes, 226–227

Nucleotide bases, spontaneous mutations and, 189

Nucleotide sequences, evolutionary relationships and, 41–42

Nucleotide substitutions, 312–313

Nucleotides

in DNA, 174, 176

in DNA replication, 179–180

genetic information and, 9

in the structure of nucleic acids, 38

tautomers, 189, 190

I-28

Nucleus (of atoms), 19

Nucleus (of cells)

discovery of DNA in, 173

in eukaryotic cells, 66, 67

in the evolution of eukaryotic cells, 4

function of, 63

nuclear totipotency in animals, 276, 277

in prophase, 134

structure and function, 68

Null hypothesis, 14

Nutrient deficiencies

in animals, 628–629

in plants, 538

Nutrients

essential nutrients in animal nutrition, 627–628, 629, 641

net primary productivity and, 919

in plant nutrition, 538–541

See also Animal nutrition; Plant nutrition

Nutritional categories, 394–395

Nymphaea, 440

O

Ob/ob mice, 640, 848

Obesity, 847, 848

Obligate aerobes, 394

Obligate anaerobes, 394

Obligate parasites, 453

Occipital lobe, 728

Oceanic islands, variation in species richness, 907–908, 909

Oceans

circulation patterns and upwellings, 851–852

and climate, 851–852

net primary productivity of the open ocean, 919

sea levels changes through Earth’s history, 361, 362

temperature changes, 852

Octet rule, 20

Octopus bimaculoides, 487

Octopus vulgaris, 783

Octopuses, 487, 774, 783

Odd-toed hoofed mammals, 514

Odonata, 495

Odorants, 716–717

Oil of wintergreen, 592

Oil spills, bioremediation, 271

Oils, 29–30

Okazaki, Reiji, 184

Okazaki fragments, 184

Old World monkeys, 515

Oleander, 598

Olfaction, 716–717

Olfactory bulb, 716, 728

Olfactory epithelium, 716

Olfactory receptor cells, 716–717

Oligochaetes, 485

Oligodendrocytes, 702

Oligonucleotides, 38

Oligopeptides, 44

Oligosaccharides, 27, 212

Omega-3 fatty acids, 627

Omega-6 fatty acids, 627

Ommatidia, 722

Omnivores, 889, 890

On the Origin of Species (Darwin), 10, 300–301, 345

Oncogenes, 148

Oncorhynchus nerka, 783

“One gene–one enzyme” hypothesis, 195–196

One gene–one polypeptide hypothesis, 196

Onychophorans, 476, 491

Oocytes, 772–773

Oogenesis, 771, 772–773

Oomycetes, 408–409

Open circulatory systems, 664, 665

Open ocean, net primary productivity, 919

Open ocean biome, 856, 857

“Open range,” 845

Open reading frames, 237, 240

Open systems, 876

Operators, 218

Opercular cavities, 651

Opercular flaps, 651

Operculum, 504

Operons, 217–220

Operophtera brumata, 930, 931

Ophiothrix spiculata, 499

Ophrys, 351

Opisthokonts, 451

Opossums, 513

“Opportunistic evolution,” 544–545

Opsins, 336–337, 719

Oral cavity, 654, 655

Oral hormones, 781

Oral surface, 498

Orangutans, 515

Orchids

bilateral symmetry, 440

mechanical isolation, 351

pollinators, 420, 447–448

Ordovician period, 360–361, 372

Organ identity genes, 284, 285

Organ of Corti, 717–718

Organ systems, 6

Organelles

chromosomes and genes in, 166–167

in the evolution of eukaryotic cells, 4

functions of, 63

glyoxysomes, 72

mitochondria, 71–72

motor proteins and the movement of, 75, 76

peroxisomes, 72

plastids, 72

vacuoles, 72–73

Organic fertilizers, 541

Organisms, 2

Organization. See Biological organization

Organizer, 799, 800

Organogenesis

defined, 797

neural tube induction in chordates, 797–800, 801

Organs

defined, 6, 616

levels of organization in animals, 616–617

need for energy and oxygen transport systems, 617

ori region, 132

Oriental biogeographic region, 858, 859

Orientation

animal mechanisms, 835–837

defined, 834

honey bee waggle dance, 837

Origin of life, 2, 34, 35

Origins of replication, 180, 181

Ornithorhynchus anatinus, 513

Orthocarpus densiflorus, 878

Orthologs, 245

Orthoptera, 495

Orycteropus afer, 340

Oryctolagus cuniculus, 768

Oryza sativa. See Rice

Osmosis

description of, 88–89

fluid loss in capillaries and, 675–676

water–salt balance and, 751

Osmotic conformers (osmoconformers), 758

Osmotic pressure

of body fluids, 752

defined, 88

hyperosmotic regulators, 756, 757–758

isosmotic animals, 756

kidney function and, 753

of primary urine, 761

terrestrial animals, 759

of tubular fluid, 762, 763

Osmotic regulators (osmoregulators), 758

Osprey, 629, 630

Ossicles, 717, 718

Ostfeld, Rick, 864, 880

Ostia, 671

Ostrich, 510, 511

Ottoia, 369

Ouachita Mountains, 348

Our Knowledge of the External World (Russell), 722

Outer ear, 718

Outgroup, 329

Ova

defined, 769

menstrual cycle, 778–779

oogenesis, 771, 772–773

ovulation in mammals, 777–779

See also Eggs

Oval window, 717, 718

Ovarian follicles

development, 772–773

menstrual cycle, 778–779

sex steroids and the regulation of mammalian reproduction, 776–777, 778–779

Ovaries

in angiosperms, 439, 440

major hormones and their actions, 744

ovulation, 768, 777–779, 784

as primary reproductive organs, 770

sex steroids and sexual development, 746, 747

sex steroids and the regulation of mammalian reproduction, 776–777, 778–779

Overtopping growth, 431

Oviducts, 777

Ovipositor, 494

Ovulation

defined, 773

induced, 768, 777–778, 784

spontaneous, 778–779, 784

Ovules

in angiosperms, 443

in conifers, 437, 438

in seed plants, 434

Owls, 512

Oxaloacetate, 111, 117

Oxidation, 107–108β-Oxidation, 116

Oxidative phosphorylation, 108, 111, 112, 113

Oxidative system of ATP supply, 691, 692

Oxidized state, 44

Oxygen

aerobic cellular respiration and, 109, 111, 113

breathing organs and, 665

covalent bonding capacity, 22

cyanobacteria and oxygen cycling, 396

electronegativity, 23

in the evolution of life, 3–4

inhibition of nitrogenase, 544

isotopes, 19

production by photosynthesis, 123

as a respiratory gas, 644 (see also Respiratory gases)

systemic tissues and, 665

Oxygen consumption

in insect flight muscles, 681

limits of work at high elevation and, 659–660

measuring of metabolic rate, 607–608

measuring the energy costs of exercise, 605, 622

Oxygen equilibrium curve, 678–679

Oxygen partial pressure

control of mammalian breathing and, 659

defined, 645

diffusion in cocurrent and countercurrent gas exchange systems and, 649–650

oxygen diffusion and, 645, 647–648

Oxygen transport

animal need for, 617

circulatory systems and, 662

by hemoglobin in blood, 677–678

systemic and breathing-organ circuits, 665–667

Oxygenation, 677–678

Oxytocin, 620, 737, 741, 744, 780

Oysters, 487

I-29

Ozark Mountains, 348

Ozone layer, 4, 191

P

P450 enzymes, 618

p21 Protein, 282

p53 Protein, 188

P rats, 215

Pace, Norman, 241, 383

Pacemaker cells

crustacean heart, 671

mammalian heartbeat, 668–669, 670, 671

Pacific salmon, 783

Packrat middens, 902, 903

Paclitaxel, 148

Pair rule genes, 286, 287

Pairing behavior, 843

Palaeognaths, 511

Palearctic biogeographic region, 858, 859, 861

Paleomagnetic dating, 359

Paleontology

construction of phylogenies and, 331

dating of fossils and rocks, 357, 358–359

the geological time scale, 359–361

history of Precambrian life, 367–368

overview of the fossil record of life, 367–374

reasons for the paucity of the fossil record, 367

See also Fossil record

Paleozoic era, 360–361, 372–373

Palisade mesophyll, 531

Palmitic acid, 30

Palms, secondary growth, 534

Pan. See Chimpanzees

Pancreas

in digestion, 636, 637–638

endocrine control of, 639

insulin and glucagon regulation of blood nutrient levels, 640–641

major hormones and their actions, 744

Pandemics, 298

Pandey, Subhash, 215

Pandion haliateus, 629, 630

Pandoraviruses, 399

Pangaea, 372, 373, 859

Pangolins, 514

Pantothenic acid, 628

Papanicolau (Pap) test, 129

Paper, 521, 535

Paper wasps, 497

Paphiopedilum, 440

Papilio machaon, 497

Papyrus, 521

Parabasalids, 410, 411

Parabronchi, 653

Paracrine signals, 95, 96

Paracrines, 736

Paragordius tricuspidatus, 490

Paramecium, 407, 414, 415, 886–887

Paramecium aurelia, 888

Paramecium bursaria, 888

Paramecium caudatum, 888

Paranthropus aethiopicus, 516

Paranthropus boisei, 515, 516

Paranthropus robustus, 515, 516

Paraphyletic groups, 339

Parapodia, 484

Parasitic flatworms, 481–482

Parasitic fungi, 453–454

Parasitic nematodes, 489, 518

Parasitic wasps, 595–596

Parasitism, effects on fitness, 883, 884

“Parasol effect,” 363

Parasympathetic nervous system, 725, 726

Parathyroid hormone, 689, 744

Parenchyma, 525, 526, 529

Parent rock, 540

Parental generation

defined, 151

dihybrid crosses, 154, 155

monohybrid crosses, 152, 153

Parietal lobe, 728

Parsimony principle, 329, 331

Parthenocarpy, 562

Partial pressures

and gas diffusion in cocurrent and countercurrent gas exchange systems, 649–650

of respiratory gases, 645

See also Oxygen partial pressure

Particulate inheritance, 151–158

Parus major, 930, 931

Pascal (Pa), 645

Passeriform birds, 512

Passerina cyanea, 831

Passiflora, 894, 895

Passionflower, 894, 895

Passive transport, 87–91

Pasteur, Louis, 105

Patents, 253

Path integration, 834–835

Pathogen associated molecular patterns (PAMPs), 591, 813

Pathogenesis-related (PR) genes, 591

Pathogenesis-related (PR) proteins, 591, 592

Pathogenic bacteria

biofilms, 390, 391

characteristics of, 393–394

toxins, 394

Pathogenic fungi, 454, 455

Pathogens

animal defense systems and, 810 (see also Animal defense systems)

defined, 810

Pattern formation

body segmentation in the fruit fly, 285–288

defined, 283

programmed cell death, 284

spatial differences in gene expression and, 283

Pattern recognition receptors (PRRs), 813

Pauling, Linus, 337

Pax6, 806

Pax6 gene, 273, 294

Pears, 444

Peas, Mendelian inheritance, 151–156

Peat, 453

Pectoral fins, 503, 504

Pedigrees, of humans, 157–158

Pelagic zone, 857

Pellicle, 407

Pelophylax, 11

Penetrance, 162

Penicillin

discovery of, 450

effect on bacterial cell walls, 194, 380–381

Penicillin-binding proteins, 194

Penicillin resistance, 169, 194, 467

Penicillium, 450, 464

Penicillium camembertii, 464

Penicillium notatum, 467

Penicillium roqueforti, 464, 465

Penile erection, 664, 780

Penis

development, 746

erection, 664, 780

hydrostatic skeleton, 690–691

sperm transfer and, 774

Pentaradial symmetry, 498

Pentoses, 27, 38

Penumatophores, 599

Pepsinogens, 637

Pepsins, 637, 639

Peptidases, 635

Peptide and protein hormones

receptor proteins, 737

secretion, 739

structure and function, 638, 737

Peptide bonds, 44, 45, 46

Peptides

defined, 44

as neurotransmitters, 711

Peptidoglycan, 64, 380–381

Peptidyl transferase, 210

Per capita birth rate, 866–867, 874

Per capita death rate, 866–867, 874

Per capita growth rates

defined, 867

effect of interspecific interactions on, 886

effect of population density on, 874, 875

species’ distributions and, 870–872

Per gene, 829

Perching birds, 512

Pereiopods, 494

Perennials, 579, 597–598

Perfect flowers, 439, 574

Perforin, 823

Perfusion

in cocurrent and countercurrent gas exchange systems, 649–650

defined, 649, 665

Pericles, 809

Pericycle, 528–529

Periderm, 525, 534

Periods, 359–361

Peripheral activation, of hormones, 740

Peripheral chemoreceptors, 659

Peripheral membrane proteins, 85

Peripheral nervous system (PNS), 724, 726–727

Periplasmic space, 381

Perissodactyla, 514

Peristalsis, 635, 696

Peritoneal cavity, 800

Peritoneum, 473, 474, 800, 801

Peritonitis, 800

Permian period

atmospheric oxygen levels, 365, 374

flying insects, 357, 374

history of life during, 370, 372–373

key events during, 360–361

mass extinctions, 363, 374

volcanoes, 363

Peromyscus gossypinus, 841

Peromyscus leucopus, 830, 841, 864

Peroxisomes, 66, 67, 72

Personal genomics, 249

Petals, 439, 574

Petiole, 531

Petromyzon marinus, 503

Pfiesteria piscicida, 406

pH

blood pH in negative-feedback control of breathing, 656, 657, 659

impact on enzymes, 56, 57

impact on protein structure, 47

of the stomach lumen, 637

Phage therapy, 399

Phagocytes

activation in the humoral immune response, 822

defensins and, 812

functions of, 71, 811

in inflammation, 813, 814

in innate defenses, 810

types of, 811

Phagocytosis, 70–71, 93, 811, 813

Phagosomes, 71, 93

Phalanges, 292–293

Phanerozoic eon, 359, 360–361, 367, 368–372

Pharmacogenomics, 249

Pharming, 266–267

Pharyngeal slits, 500

Pharynx

chordates, 500

hemichordates, 500

mammalian breathing system, 654, 655

Phasmida, 495

Phenolics, 594

Phenotype

analyzing with proteomics and metabolomics, 238–239

artificial selection and, 303–304

defined, 153

determination by genes, 154

effects of mutation on, 187

interactions of genes and alleles in the production of, 158–162

recombinant, 163

Phenotypic plasticity

I-30

in animals, 618–619

digestive, 635

of skeletal muscle, 693–694

Phenylalanine, 43, 195

Phenylketonuria, 195

Pheromones, 736, 834–835

Philodina roseola, 482

Phloem

function, 428, 526

in leaves, 531

pressure flow of solutes, 551–553

in roots, 529

secondary, 533

in shoots, 530–531

Phlox, 353–354

Phlox cuspidata, 353–354

Phlox drummondii, 346–347, 353–354

Phoenix dactylifera, 446

Pholidota, 514

Phoronids, 476, 480–481, 483–484

Phoronis mulleri, 483

Phosphate group

in phospholipids, 30

protein phosphorylation, 212–213

structure and properties, 25

in the structure of nucleic acids, 38, 41

Phosphate ions, in ATP, 105, 106

Phosphatidylcholine, 31

Phosphoanhydride bonds, 107

Phosphodiester bonds

in DNA replication, 179

in the formation of RNA, 198

in nucleic acids, 38, 39

Phosphoglucose isomerase (PGI), 316–317

3-Phosphoglycerate, 110

Phosphoglycerate kinase, 110

Phospholipid bilayers

simple diffusion across, 87–88

structure, 30, 31

Phospholipids

in biological membranes, 83–85

defined, 30

hydrophilic and hydrophobic regions, 83–84

structure and properties, 30, 31

Phosphorus

in animal nutrition, 629

covalent bonding capacity, 22

cycle, 926

electronegativity, 23

in plant nutrition, 543

Phosphorylase kinase, 101

Phosphorylation

of histones, 227

of proteins, 212–213

Photic zone, 857

Photoautotrophs, 394, 395

Photoheterotrophs, 394–395

Photomorphogenesis, in plants, 567–570

Photons

absorption by chlorophyll, 121–122

and Earth’s radiation balance, 926

possible interactions with molecules, 119–120

See also Light

Photoperiod

flowering and, 580–582

seasonal reproduction in animals, 784

Photoreceptors

defined, 557

entrainment of circadian rhythms in plants, 570

in plant growth and development, 557, 567–570

in visual systems, 718–719, 720, 722

See also Pigments

Photosynthesis

carbon dioxide fixation, 119, 124–125

in chloroplasts, 72

in cyanobacteria, 385

defined, 3

and ecological systems, 903

in the evolution of life, 3

impact on atmospheric oxygen, 364–365

linkage to cellular respiration, 118

overview, 118–119

in photoautotrophs, 394, 395

photochemistry and photobiology of light, 119–121

photosystem organization and function, 121–123

Photosynthetic eukaryotes, 421, 422

Photosynthetic lamellae, 385

Photosystems, 121–123

photosystem I, 122, 123

photosystem II, 122, 123

Phototropin, 568

Phototropism, 561–562

Phthiaptera, 495

Phycoerythrin, 421

Phyla, 339

Phyllomedusa bicolor, 11

Phyllopteryx taeniolatus, 505

Phylogenetic trees

and biogeography, 859–861

comparative biology and, 327–328

construction of, 328–334

defined, 326

description of, 326–327

parsimony principle, 329, 331

testing, 332–334

Tree of Life, 5

Phylogeny/Phylogenetics

biogeography and, 859–861

biological classification and, 339

comparative and predictive uses, 334–338

defined, 325, 326

derived traits, 328

evolutionary history and phylogenetic trees, 326–327

ingroup and outgroup, 329

maximum likelihood method, 332

parsimony principle, 329, 331

reconstructing from traits, 328–334

reconstruction of evolutionary events and, 374

testing phylogenetic analyses, 332–334

Physical environment

atmospheric circulation patterns, 850–851

induction of epigenetic changes, 228–229

ocean circulation patterns, 851–852

topography, 852–853

variation in solar energy input, 849, 850

See also Climate

Physical geography

defined, 846

impact on biogeography, 854–857

Physical work, limits at high elevation, 659–660

Phytoalexins, 591, 592

Phytochrome

effect on gene transcription, 569–570

entrainment of circadian rhythms, 570

red light responses in plants, 568–569

Phytomers, 522

Phytoplankton, 415, 857

Phytoplankton “blooms,” 408

Phytoplasma, 588

Phytoremediation, 602

Picea glauca, 436

Picea mariana, 436

Pied flycatchers, 828

Pigeons

artificial selection and, 304

orientation by homing pigeons, 835–836

Pigmented epithelium, 721

Pigments

absorption and action spectra, 120

accessory pigments, 121

defined, 120

respiratory pigments, 677–678

See also Chlorophyll; Photoreceptors

“the Pill,” 781

Pilobolus, 462

Pilosa, 514

Pineal gland, 744

Pineapple, 444

Pines, 437–438

Pinnae, 718

Pinocytosis, 93–94

Piñon–juniper woodlands, 931

Pinus contorta, 437

Piranga olivacea, 512

Pistil, 439

Pit organs, 722–723

Pit vipers, 722–723

Pith, 529

Pituitary gland

hypothalamus–pituitary–adrenal cortex axis, 742–743

pituitary–hypothalamus connections and interactions, 740–743

See also Anterior pituitary gland; Posterior pituitary gland

Placenta

development, 796, 803

of eutherians and marsupials, 512

hormones secreted by, 777, 780

structure and function, 780

Placental mammals

blastocyst implantation, 793, 794

cleavage, 792–793

delayed implantation, 782–783

gastrulation, 795–796, 797

placenta, 803 (see also Placenta)

See also Eutherians

Placobdella parasitica, 484

Placozoans, 475, 476, 478

Planaria, 648

Plankton, 367

See also Phytoplankton

Plant biotechnology

agriculture and, 267–270

genetic transformation, 258, 259

pharming, 266–267

Plant body

alternative form and function of plant organs, 531–532

apical–basal and radial axes, 523–524

determinate and indeterminate growth, 526

impact of domestication on, 534–535

organization and construction, 522–526

primary growth and the primary body, 527–532

secondary growth, 527, 533–534

tissue systems, 524–526

Plant cell walls

acid growth hypothesis, 563

in constitutive defenses, 590

structure and function, 67, 77

turgor pressure and, 545–546

Plant cells

acid growth hypothesis, 563

apoptosis, 147

chloroplasts, 72

cytokinesis, 135–136, 137

structure of, 67

totipotency, 275–276

turgor pressure, 89

vacuoles, 72–73

Plant defenses

chemical defenses, 593–597

constitutive defenses, 590, 593–594

evolutionary “arms race”, 892

induced defenses, 590–593, 594–596

and soil nutrients, 854

successful herbivore responses and, 596–597

Plant embryos

I-31

angiosperms, 443

in the life cycle of land plants, 424

structure and development, 524, 577, 578

Plant growth and development

abscisic acid and, 566–567

brassinosteroids and, 566

cytokinins and, 566

double fertilization and embryogenesis, 577, 578

entrainment of circadian rhythms, 570

ethylene and, 565–566

hormones and photoreceptors in, 557

key factors and characteristics, 556

role of photoreceptors, 567–570

roles of gibberellins and auxin, 558–564

seed germination and seedling growth, 556–557

Plant hormones

abscisic acid, 566–567

brassinosteroids, 566

compared to animal hormones, 557

cytokinins, 566

ethylene, 565–566

gibberellins and auxin, 558–564

in plant defenses, 591

in plant growth and development, 557

semi-dwarf grains, 570–571

structures and functions, 559

“Plant kingdom,” 421

Plant life cycles (see also Life histories)

angiosperms, 442–443 (see also Angiosperm sexual reproduction)

conifers, 437–438

ferns, 430–431

land plants, 424–425

mosses, 426–428

seed plants, 432–435

Plant nutrition

carnivorous plants, 544, 545

essential elements, 538–539

ion exchange and nutrient uptake, 540–541

nutrient deficiencies, 538

“opportunistic evolution” and, 544–545

parasitic plants, 544, 545

soil and, 539–540

soil organisms and, 541–545

Plant signal transduction pathways

in the actions of auxin and gibberellins, 563–564

cytokinin pathway, 566, 567

genetic screens, 557–558

in plant induced defenses, 591, 595–596

Plantae, 421, 422

Plantago, 590

Plantago erecta, 878

Plantains, 590

Plant–pollinator interactions, 420, 441–442, 447–448

and coffee production, 914

as ecosystem service, 911

Plants

adaptations to environmental stresses, 597–602

alternative form and function of plant organs, 531–532

as primary producers, 889

asexual reproduction, 130

coevolution with animals, 411–442, 894, 895

endophytic fungi, 458

evolution of defensive chemicals, 894

floral organ development, 284, 285

genome characteristics, 244, 245

hybridization and lateral gene transfer, 319

meristems, 276–277

metabolomics, 239

mycorrhizae, 456–457

origin and evolution of, 421, 422

parasitic fungi, 453–454

pathogenic fungi, 454

phytoremediation, 602

polyploidy, 145–146

pressure flow of solutes in phloem, 551–553

primary endosymbiosis, 421

sac fungi diseases, 464

sexual reproduction (see Angiosperm sexual

reproduction; Plant life cycles)

speciation by polyploidy, 350–351

stomatal control of water loss and gas exchange, 550–551

stress response, 224, 225

variation in communities along environment gradients, 900, 901

water and solute transport in the xylem, 545–550

Planula, 478, 479

Plasma, 677

See also Blood plasma

Plasma cells, 817, 819

Plasmids

gene transfer between bacteria, 168

as transformation vectors, 259

Plasmodesmata, 67, 77, 526

Plasmodial slime molds, 412–413

Plasmodium, 406, 415–416

Plasmogamy, 436, 459, 460, 461, 462

Plass, Gilbert, 916

Plastids

genetic material and cytoplasmic inheritance, 166–167

structure and function, 72

Plate tectonics, 361, 362

Platelet-derived growth factor, 267

Platelets, 677, 814

Platte thistle, 892

Plecoptera, 495

Pleistocene epoch, 374

Pleistocene glaciation, 348

Plesiadapis fodinatus, 371

Pleural membranes, 655

Plumatella repens, 480

Pluripotency, 275, 800

Pluripotent stem cells, 279

induced, 279

Pneumocystis jirovecii, 454, 824–825

Pneumonia, 387

AIDS and, 824–825

Poecilanthrax willistoni, 497

Pogonophorans, 484, 485

Poikilotherms, 611–612, 613

Poinsettias, 573, 587–588

Point mutations

description of, 187–188

effects on polypeptide sequences, 205–206

in genome evolution, 312–313

single nucleotide polymorphisms, 248

“Point restriction” coat patterns, 160–162

Poiseuille, Jean, 663

Polar bodies, 771

Polar atmospheric circulation, 851

Polar covalent bonds, 22–23

Polar lobe, 791

Polar microtubules, 135

Polar nuclei, 575

Polar substances, impact on protein structure, 47

Polar transport, of auxin, 561–562

Polar tube, 460

Polarity

in development, 280

establishment in the animal zygote, 788–789

“Polarization compass,” 836–837

Pollen grains

in angiosperm sexual reproduction, 575–576

in the coevolution of plants and animals, 441

defined, 433

pollination and germination, 434, 442, 443, 576–577

structure and function, 433

Pollen tubes, 434, 576–577

Pollination

in the angiosperm life cycle, 442, 576–577

coffee plantations and, 914

defined, 434, 576

as ecosystem service, 911

mechanisms to prevent inbreeding, 576

Pollination strategies, 420, 441–442, 447–448

Pollinators

behavioral isolation in angiosperms and, 352, 353

mechanical isolation in angiosperms and, 351

plant pollination strategies and, 420, 441–442, 447–448

Pollinia, 447–448

Poll’s stellate barnacle, 887, 888

Poly A tail, 202

Polyacrylamide, 255

Polychaete worms, 805

Polydesmus, 493

Polymerase chain reaction (PCR)

in the creation of cDNA libraries, 262

in the creation of synthetic

DNA, 262

in DNA sequencing, 235, 236

overview, 185–186

sequencing of ancient DNA, 192

Polymerization, 26

Polymers, 26

Polymorphic genes, 158

Polynucleotides, 38

Polyp (cnidarian life stage), 478, 479

Polypeptides

defined, 44

formation in translation, 206–210 (see also Protein synthesis)

posttranslational modification, 211–213

Polyphyletic groups, 339

Polyploidy, 145–146, 350–351

Polyribosomes, 209–210

Polysaccharides, 27–28, 116

Polysomes, 209–210

Polyterpenes, 594

Polytrichum commune, 426

Polyubiquitin, 231–232

Ponderosa pine forests, 931

Ponds and lakes, 856, 857

Pools, of elements in biogeochemical cycles, 921

Poplar genome, 245

Population bottlenecks, 305

Population density

defined, 865

density dependent population growth, 873–874

dynamic changes, 865, 866

Population growth

carrying capacity and, 874–876

effects of births and deaths on, 866–867

effects of immigration and emigration on, 876–878

effects of intraspecific competition on, 885–886

history of human, 875

models of, 866–867, 876

multiplicative growth, 872–874

Population growth rates

interspecific interactions and, 883

life histories and, 867–872

Population size

defined, 865

effects of births and deaths on, 866–867

estimating, 865

I-32

Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium and, 308

Populations

abundance and, 865–866

bottlenecks and the founder effect, 305

carrying capacity and, 874–876

conservation and management, 878–880

defined, 846, 865

doubling time, 873

effects of immigration and emigration on, 876–878

effects of interspecific interactions on population dynamics, 886–887

evolution and, 302 (see also Evolution)

founder effect, 305

gene flow, 305

genetic drift, 305

genetic structure, 308

in the hierarchical structure of ecosystems, 7

Lyme disease and, 864

multiplicative growth, 872–874

Populus tremuloides, 130, 890, 891

Porcine/bovine somatotropin, 267

Posidonia, 446

Positional information, 283

Positive feedback

in action potentials, 707–708

in animal functions, 620

defined, 8

Positive selection, 311, 314–316

Positive-sense RNA, 397

Positive-sense single-stranded RNA viruses, 397–398

Positron emission tomography (PET), 729

Postabsorptive state, 639, 640–641

Postelsia palmaeformis, 409

Posterior, 473

Posterior pituitary gland, 740–741, 742, 744

Postganglionic neurons, 725, 726

Postpartum estrus, 768

Postsynaptic cells, 700, 709

Posttranscriptional gene regulation, 229–232

Postzygotic isolating mechanisms, 351, 353–354

Potassium-40, 358, 359

Potassium chloride, urine production in insects and, 764–766

Potassium ion channels

action potentials and, 707, 708

membrane potential and, 705–706

at neuromuscular junctions, 711

resting potential and, 704

Potassium ions

electronegativity, 23

equilibrium potential, 704

guard cell function in plants, 551

at neuromuscular junctions, 711

Potassium leak channels, 704, 705, 708

Potatoes, 531, 532, 585–586

Potential difference, 702

Potential energy, 31–32

Potrykus, Ingo, 269

PPARδ, 694

Prairie communities, 905–906

Pre-Bötzinger complexes, 656, 657

Pre-mRNA

introns and exons in, 200–201

processing of, 201–202

Precambrian, 359, 360–361, 367–368

Precipitation

climate diagrams, 853

effects of global warming on, 927, 929

influence on terrestrial biomes, 854

net primary productivity and, 918–919

Precursor RNA

introns and exons in, 200–201

processing of, 201–202

Predation, effects on fitness, 883, 884

Predator–prey interactions, rarity advantage and species coexistence, 888–889

Predatory fungi, 454–455, 456

Preganglionic neurons, 725, 726

Pregnancy, 779–780

Prepenetration apparatus (PPA), 542, 543

Pressure flow, in phloem, 551–553

Pressure potential, 545

Presynaptic axon terminal, 701

Presynaptic cells, 700, 709

Prevailing winds, 851

Prezygotic isolating mechanisms, 351–353, 354, 356

Priapella, 335, 336

Priapulids, 476, 490

Priapulus caudatus, 490

Primary active transport, 91, 92

Primary bronchi, 654, 655

Primary consumers

ecological efficiency and, 904

in trophic interactions, 889, 890

Primary embryonic induction, 799

Primary endosymbiosis, 404–405, 421

Primary growth, in plants, 527–532

Primary immune response, 816–817

Primary lysosomes, 70–71

Primary meristems, 527, 529, 530

Primary metabolites, 239

Primary motor cortex, 728, 730

Primary producers

in biogeochemical cycling, 921

ecological efficiency and, 904

net primary productivity and, 917

phytoplankton, 415

in trophic interactions, 889, 890

Primary protein structure, 44, 46, 48

Primary reproductive organs, 770

Primary somatosensory cortex, 728, 729, 730

Primary urine, 760–766

Primary visual cortex, 728

Primase, 180, 181

Primates

evolution, 514–517

hormonal control of pregnancy, 779–780

menstruation and the menstrual cycle, 778–779

number of living species, 514

Primers

in the creation of synthetic DNA, 262

in DNA replication, 180, 181, 184

in DNA sequencing, 235

in the polymerase chain reaction, 185, 186

Primitive groove, 796

Primitive streak, 795

Principle of allocation, 870

Probability, inheritance and, 156–157

Probes, in nucleic acid hybridization, 200

Proboscidea, 514

Proboscis

hemichordates, 499, 500

ribbon worms, 482, 483

Procambium

root stele, 528–529

shoots, 530

tissue system created by, 527

Processes, in biological systems, 7

Processive enzymes, 184, 198

Products, in chemical reactions, 31

Proenzymes, 638

Progesterone

actions of, 744

regulation of mammalian reproduction, 776–777, 779, 780

role in sexual development, 746

Programmed cell death, 146–148, 284

Prokaryotes

binary fission, 130, 132, 133

chemiosmosis in, 112

classification methods, 380–381

communities, 390–391

differences between Bacteria and Archaea, 380

differences with eukaryotes, 379

difficulties in studying, 380, 383

diversity, 383

domains of, 5

estimates of the numbers of species, 383

in the evolution of life, 3

evolutionary relationships revealed by nucleotide sequences, 381–382

genetic exchange in, 167–169

genomes, 240–243

key features of, 63–65

lateral gene transfer and discordant gene trees, 382–383

metabolic pathways, 394–395

microbiomes, 391–392

origin of replication, 180, 181

roles in element cycling, 395–396

shared characteristics with eukaryotes, 379

transcriptional gene regulation, 216–220

See also Archaea; Bacteria

Prolactin, 739, 741, 758, 780

Proline, 43, 44

Prometaphase

meiosis I, 142

mitosis, 135, 136

Promoters

of eukaryotic genes, 199–200

in the eukaryotic genome, 246

in expression vectors, 265

in gene regulation, 216, 222–223

histone modifications and, 227

sigma factors and RNA polymerase, 220

in transcription, 198

transcription factors and, 222–223

in viral reproduction, 221

Pronghorns, 832, 901

Proofreading, by DNA polymerases, 185

Prop roots, 531, 532

Prophase

meiosis I, 141, 142, 143–144

meiosis II, 142

mitosis, 134–135, 136, 141

Prosimians, 514, 515

Prosopis, 845, 889

Prosopis tamarugo, 598

Prostaglandins, 37, 57, 58, 813, 814

Prostate gland, 780

Prosthetic groups, as enzyme cofactors, 52

Protease inhibitors, 212

Proteases, 212, 635

Proteasomes, 231–232

Protein-coding genes, types of mutations, 187

Protein kinase A (PKA)

CREB-gene regulation and alcoholism, 215

in epinephrine-activated glycogen breakdown, 100, 101

Protein kinase receptors, 97, 98

Protein kinases

protein phosphorylation, 212–213

receptors, 97, 98

regulation by protein phosphatases, 102

I-33

Protein phosphatases, 102

Protein synthesis

genetic code, 203–206

overview, 197

posttranslational modification, 212–213

signal sequences, 211–212

transcription, 197–202

translation, 206–210

Proteins

amino acid building blocks, 42–44

biotechnology and the production of, 265–267

catabolic interconversions, 116–117

denaturation, 45–46

digestion, 633–634, 635, 637, 638

enzyme characteristics and functions, 49–53

excretion of nitrogenous wastes, 755–756

factors that can change protein structure, 47–49

as food molecules, 626

gene evolution and, 321

genes and, 194, 195–197 (see also Gene expression)

genetic information and, 9

higher-level structures, 44–47, 48

macromolecular structure, 26

major functions, 42

membrane proteins, 83, 85–86

modification in the rough endoplasmic reticulum, 70

primary structure, 44, 46

protein breakdown and proteasomes, 231–232

proteome and proteomics, 238–239

reconstruction of ancestral states, 325, 336–337, 341

signal sequences, 211–212

Proteobacteria, 387, 388, 394

Proteoglycans, 77, 78, 86

Proteolysis, 212, 213

Proteomes, 238–239, 249–250

Proteomics, 238–239, 249–250

Proterozoic eon, 359, 360–361, 367

Prothoracic glands, 748

Prothoracicotropic hormone (PTTH), 748

Protists

alveolates, 406–407

amoebozoans, 412–414

classification, 406

defined, 402

excavates, 410–412

overview, 405

pathogenic microbial eukaryotes, 415–416

primary producers, 415

remains of ancient marine protists, 417–418

reproduction, 414–415

rhizarians, 409–410

stramenopiles, 408–409

Protocells, 80

Protoderm

root epidermis, 528

shoots, 530

tissue system created by, 527

Protoebacterium, 404

Protohominids, 515–516

Proton concentration gradients

in chemiosmosis, 111–113, 114

in oxidative phosphorylation, 111, 112

in plant uptake of ions, 547

Proton pumps

ion exchange and plant nutrient uptake, 540–541

plant uptake of ions, 547

Protons, in atomic structure, 19

Protopeterus annectens, 505

Protostomes

cleavage, 791

defined, 472

ecdysozoans, 487–490 (see also Arthropods)

gastrulation and coloem development, 796, 797

general features, body plans, and major clades, 480

larval stage, 804–805

lophotrochozoans, 480–487

summary of living members of major groups, 476

Prototherians, 512, 513

Protula, 484

Proturans, 494

Provirus, 225, 398

Proximal convoluted tubule, 761–762, 765

Proximate explanations, 11

Pseudobiceros, 648

Pseudocoel, 473, 474, 480

Pseudocoelomates, 473, 474

Pseudocolochirus, 499

Pseudogenes, 246, 313, 318

Pseudomonas, 253, 395

Pseudonocardia, 882

Pseudopallene, 492

Pseudoplasmodium, 414

Pseudopodia, 73

Pseudopods

amoebozoans, 412

foraminiferans, 409–410

radiolarians, 410

Psocoptera, 495

Pterobranchs, 499–500

Pterosaur, 292

Pteygotes, 495–496, 497

Puberty, 746–747, 781, 869, 870

Puccinia graminis, 454

Puccinia graminis strain Ug99, 589, 602, 603

Puffballs, 453

Pulmonary artery, 668

Pulmonary valve, 668

Pulmonary veins, 668

Pulse oximeters, 678

Pulsed secretion, of hormones, 743

Punnett, Reginald, 153

Punnett square, 153

Pupil, 719, 720

Purifying selection, 311, 314–316

Purines

base pairing, 38–40, 41

in DNA, 176, 177

structure, 38

Purple loosestrife, 891

Purple owl’s clover, 878

Purple witchweed, 545

Pus, 814

Pycnogonids, 491

Pycnophyes, 490

Pyloric sphincter, 637

Pyrenestes ostrinus, 312

Pyrenian ibex, 276

Pyridoxine, 628

Pyrimidines

base pairing, 38–40, 41

in DNA, 176, 177

structure, 38

Pyrophosphate, 107

Pyruvate

in fermentation pathways, 115, 116

oxidation, 109, 110–111

Pyruvate dehydrogenase, 110

Q

Q10, 611, 612

Quack grass, 440

Quadriceps femoris, 689, 690

Qualitative traits, 310

Quantitative traits

actions of natural selection on, 310–312

conferred by multiple genes, 160

defined, 310

human height, 162

Quaternary period

climate changes during, 361, 362

history of life during, 360–361, 374

Quaternary protein structure, 46–47

Queen Anne’s lace, 440

Quercus robur, 930

Quillworts, 429

Quorum sensing, 378, 391

R

R factors, 168

R groups, 43–44, 51

R (restriction) point, 138, 140, 148

Rabbits, 514

coat color, 158–159

induced ovulation, 768, 777–778

“point restriction” coat patterns, 160–162

reproductive characteristics, 768

Radial axis, in plants, 523–524

Radial cleavage, 790, 791

Radial symmetry, 473

Radiation

as a mutagen, 190, 191

solar, 849, 926–927

Radicle, 556, 557

Radioisotopes, 357, 358–359

Radiolarians, 410, 416

Radiometric dating, 357, 358–359

Radius, 292–293

Rafflesia arnoldii, 447

Rain shadows, 852–853

Rainbow trout, 57

Ramalina menziesii, 467

Rana pipiens. See Leopard frogs

Random mating, 308, 309

Rape (Brassica napus), 566

Raphidoptera, 495

Rarity advantage, 888–889

Rats

effects of maternal care on rat pups, 831–832

P rats and alcoholism, 215

Rattlesnakes, 722–723

Ray-finned fishes

body plan, 502

diversity, 505

evolution, 504

Rays, 504

Reactants, in chemical reactions, 31

Reaction center, 121, 122, 123

Receptive fields, 720

Receptor endocytosis, 94–95

Receptors/Receptor proteins

action of hormones on target cells and, 739

binding of ligands to, 97

in the endocrine system, 737–738

in endocytosis, 93

inhibitors, 97

in signal transduction pathways, 96–98

Recessive traits

defined, 152

heterozygous carriers, 158

monohybrid crosses, 152–153

test crosses, 154, 155

Reciprocal adaptations, 896–897

Recognition sequences, of eukaryotic promoters, 223

Recombinant chromatids, 144

Recombinant DNA technology

applications, 265–270

artificial gene constructs, 262

DNA ligase and the joining of DNA fragments, 257

gel electrophoresis, 255–256

genomic libraries and cDNA libraries, 261–262

patents and, 253

public concerns about, 270

reporter genes, 260–261

restriction enzymes, 254–255, 256

synthetic DNA, 262

Recombinant phenotype, 163

Recombination, genetic, 162–164

Recombination frequency, 164

Rectum, 638

Red algae, 421, 422, 423

Red blood cells

beta thalassemia, 202

osmosis, 89

Plasmodium and malaria, 415–416

respiratory gas transport, 677–678

sickle-cell disease, 188

Red-breasted nuthatch, 901

Red bryony vine, 532

I-34

Red campion, 574

Red fluorescent proteins, 325, 341

Red foxes, 784

Red light, phytochrome-mediated responses in plants, 568–569

Red swimming muscles

countercurrent heat exchange, 675, 678–679

of tuna, 661, 675, 678–679

Red tides, 401, 416

Red–green color blindness, 166

Redox reactions, 107–108

Reduced state, 44

Reduction, 107–108

Reforestation, mycorrhizal fungi and, 466

Regulation

defined, 610

energy costs, 610

hibernation and, 614–615

Regulative development, 791–792

Regulators, 609–610

Regulatory genes, 219

Regulatory T cells, 824, 825

Reindeer moss, 456

Reinforcement, of isolating mechanisms, 351–355

Reissner’s membrane, 718

Releasing hormones (RHs), 742, 743, 744

Religion, 14–15

Renal artery and vein, 668

Renal organs. See Kidneys

Repetitive DNA sequences, 246–247

“Replication complex,” 132

Replication forks, 180, 181, 182–183

Reporter genes, 260–261

Repressible operons, 218, 219–220

Repressors

in negative gene regulation, 216

roles in different operons, 218, 219

silencers and, 223

Reproduction. See Angiosperm sexual reproduction; Asexual reproduction; Sexual reproduction; Vegetative reproduction

Reproductive isolation

defined, 344

genetic divergence and, 346–347

incomplete, 351

mechanisms of reinforcement, 351–355

produced by incompatibility between genes, 346, 347

species and, 344–345

Reproductive organs, primary and accessory, 770

Reproductive signals, 132, 133

Reptiles

breathing system, 652

circulatory system, 666–667

crocodilians and birds, 510–511 (see also Birds)

excretion of nitrogenous wastes, 756

lepidosaurs, 508–510

Requiem sharks, 773–774

Residual volume, 656

Resistance exercise, 694

Resistance (R) genes, 213, 592, 602, 603

Resource partitioning, 888, 892, 894

Resources

allocation of, 870

carrying capacity and, 874–875

life histories and, 869–870

limiting resource, 884

Respiratory airways, 654, 655

Respiratory chain, 111, 112

Respiratory gas exchange

alternating diffusion and bulk flow, 646

in animals without breathing organs, 648–649

in bird lungs, 652–653

breathing and ventilation, 646–647

countercurrent gas exchange in gills, 650–651

diffusion and partial pressures, 644–646

diffusion through air and water, 647–648

at high elevations, 643

in insect tracheal breathing systems, 653–654

mammalian breathing system, 654–659

path length and the challenges of, 644

in tidally ventilated lungs, 651–652

Respiratory gases

in cocurrent and countercurrent gas exchange systems, 649–650

defined, 644

diffusion and partial pressures, 644–646

diffusion through air and water, 647–648

negative-feedback control of breathing by blood carbon dioxide levels, 658–659

transport in blood, 677–678

Respiratory minute volume, 656

Respiratory pigments, 677–678

Resting potential, 703, 704

Restoration ecology, 862, 891–892, 912, 913

“Restriction digest,” 254

Restriction enzymes, 254–255, 256

Reteporella couchii, 480

Retina, 719–721

Retinal, 52, 39011-cis-Retinal, 719

Retinal ganglion cells, 720–721, 721–722

Retinoblastoma (RB), 148

Retinoblastoma protein (RB), 140

Retinol, 682

Retinula cells, 722

Retrotransposons, 246, 247

Retroviruses, 397, 398

See also Human immunodeficiency virus

Reverse transcriptase, 225, 262, 398

Reversible inhibition, 54, 55

Rhacophorus nigropalmatus, 11

Rhagoletis pomonella, 350, 352

Rheas, 511

Rheumatoid arthritis, 814

Rhincodon typus, 630

Rhinocyllus conicus, 892

Rhizarians, 409–410

Rhizobia, 542, 543–544 (see also Nitrogen fixation)

Rhizobium, 387

Rhizoids, 429, 451

Rhizomes, 429, 585, 596

Rhizopus, 462

Rhizopus stolonifer, 461

Rhodopsins, 718–719, 720, 722

Rhogeessa, 346, 347

Rht gene, 571

Rhyniophytes, 429

Rhythmogenic centers, 656, 657

Rhyzopertha dominica, 872, 904

Ribbon worms, 476, 482, 483

Ribbontail stingray, 504

Riboflavin, 628

Ribonucleic acid (RNA)

complementary base pairing, 38–39

in the creation of cDNA libraries, 262

expression of genetic information and, 40, 41, 42

formation in transcription, 197–202

nucleotide structure, 38

primer in DNA replication, 180, 181

in protocells, 80

roles in protein synthesis, 197

Ribonucleosides, 198

Ribose, 27, 38

Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)

in ribosomes, 68, 197, 207

in translation, 197

Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) genes, 246, 247, 381–382

Ribosomes

action of antibiotics and, 213

eukaryotic cells, 66, 67, 68

polysomes, 209–210

prokaryotic cells, 64

in translation, 197, 207–209, 210

Ribozyme, 210

Ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate (RuBP), 124, 125

Ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase (rubisco), 124, 125

Ribulose monophosphate (RuMP), 124, 125

Rice

genome characteristics, 244, 245

semi-dwarf varieties, 555, 570–571

transgenic, 269

Rice, William, 356

Rice weevil, 872

Rickettsia prowazekii, 317

Rift valleys, 361

Riftia, 484

Right atrium, 668

Right-handed double helix, 177

Right ventricle, 667–668

Rigor mortis, 685

Ringneck snake, 509

Rivers and streams, 856, 857

RNA. See Ribonucleic acid

RNA-dependent RNA polymerase, 396

RNA interference (RNAi), 263–264, 593

RNA polymerase II, 222

RNA polymerases

binding to promoters, 222

inducible operons, 218

RNA-dependent, 396

shared structure and actions, 198

sigma factors, 220

in transcription, 198, 199

in viral reproduction, 221

RNA primers, in DNA replication, 180, 181

RNA retroviruses, 397, 398

RNA splicing, 201–202, 821

RNA viruses

negative-sense single stranded, 396–397

plant systemic acquired resistance, 592–593

“Robusta” coffee, 898

Rock barnacle, 887, 888

Rock pigeon, 304

Rocks

dating of, 357, 358–359

parent rock, 540

sedimentary, 418

Rod cells, 720, 721

Rodentia, 514

Rodents

key features, 512–513

number of living species, 514

See also Mice; Rats

Root apical meristem, 524, 527, 528

Root cap, 527, 528

Root hairs, 525

Root nodules, 542, 544

Root system, structure and function, 522, 529, 530

Roots

adaptations to drought stress, 599, 600

adaptations to dry environments, 598

adaptations to saturated soils, 599

arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi, 542–543

Casparian strip, 547–548

evolution of, 431

function, 522

gravitropism, 562

I-35

ion exchange and nutrient uptake, 540–541

modifications, 531, 532

primary growth, 527, 528–529

root initiation and auxin, 562

structure and function, 529, 530

symbiotic nitrogen fixation, 542, 543–544

totipotency of root cells, 275

water and solute transport in xylem, 546–548

Roquefort cheese, 464

Rose chafer, 497

Rosenblum, Erica, 454, 455

Rotational cleavage, 793

Rotifers, 476, 482

Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)

eukaryotic cells, 66, 67

structure and function, 69, 70

targeting of proteins to, 212

Round window, 718

Roundworms, 488–489

RT-PCR, 262

Ruf, Thomas, 625

Rumen, 392, 631–632

Ruminants, 631–632, 641

Runners, 531, 532, 585

Russell, Bertrand, 722

Rust fungi, 465

Ryanodine receptor, 687

Rye, 529

S

S checkpoint, 139

S locus, 576

S phase

centrosome duplication during, 135

in the eukaryotic cell cycle, 133, 134, 136

G1–S transition, 138, 140

S checkpoint, 139

Sac fungi

characteristics of, 459, 462

filamentous, 464, 465

sac fungus yeasts, 462, 464

sexual reproduction, 462463

Sac fungus yeasts, 462, 464

Saccharomyces, 258

Saccharomyces cerevisiae, 244, 451, 462

Saccoglossus kowalevskii, 500

Safranin, 381

Sake, 464

Salamanders

key features, 506–507

polarity in early development, 789

Salamandra salamandra, 507

Salamone, Daniel, 267

Salicylic acid, 37, 591, 592

Saline environments

and aquatic biomes, 856

plant adaptations, 600–601

Saliva, 636

Salix, 37

“Sally Lightfoot” crab, 493

Salmon

hyperosmotic and hyposmotic regulation in, 758

semelparity, 783

water–salt balance, 751, 766

Salmonella, 394

Salmonella typhimurium, 387

Salps, 500

Salt, George, 356

Salt glands (of animals), 754–755

Salt glands (of leaves), 601

Salt marshes, 856

Salt tolerance, biotechnology and, 269–270

Saltatory conduction, 709

Salts

diffusion and water–salt balance, 751 (see also Water–salt balance)

extrarenal excretion, 754–755

ionic attractions, 24–25

reabsorption in the hindgut, 638–639

Saltwater biomes, 14, 15

Salty soils, plant adaptations, 600–601

Sandhill cranes, 512

Sanger, Frederick, 235

Sapindopsis belviderensis, 371

Saplingoeca rosetta, 472

Saprobes, 408, 451

Saprobic fungi, 453

Saprolegnia, 408, 409

Sarcomeres, 683, 684

Sarcoplasm, 686–687

Sarcoplasmic reticulum, 686–687

Sargassum, 408

Saturated fatty acids, 29–30

Saturated soils, plant adaptations, 599

Savannas, 855

Scales, 504

Scaling relationships, 609

Scallops, 487, 696

Scarlet Banksia, 447

Sceloporus serrifer, 871, 872

Schistosomiasis, 482

Schizosaccharomyces pombe, 244

Schluter, Dolph, 893

Schmidt, Robert, 704

Schomburgk, Robert, 420

Schooling behavior, 827, 839, 843

Schopf, William, 80

Schwann cells, 702

Science and scientific methods, 12–15

Scientific names

binomial nomenclature, 4–5, 338–339

codes governing the use of, 339–341

Scion, 587

Sclera, 721

Sclereids, 525–526

Sclerenchyma, 525

Scleroporus, 930–931

Scolopendra hardwicki, 493

Scorpionflies, 495

Scorpions, 475, 492

“Scouring rushes,” 430

Screech owls, 830, 831

Scrotum, 780

Scyphozoans, 479, 480

Sd-1 gene, 571

Sea anemones, 478–480, 884–885

Sea cucumbers, 499

Sea hares, 713

Sea lettuce, 423

Sea levels, changes through Earth’s history, 361, 362

Sea lilies, 499

Sea spiders, 491

Sea squirts, 500–501

Sea stars, 498, 499, 805

Sea turtles, 510, 754–755

Sea urchins

characteristics of, 499

cytoplasmic segregation in the egg, 280

fertilization in, 774

gametic isolation, 353

gastrulation, 794, 795

polarity in the embryo, 280

regulative development, 791–792

Seabirds, 754–755

Seagrasses, 446, 856

Seasonal reproductive cycles, 784

Seasonality, 849, 850

Secale cereale, 529

Second filial generation (F2)

defined, 151

dihybrid crosses, 155–156

Mendel’s monohybrid crosses, 152–153

Second messengers, 99, 100, 712

Secondary active transport, 91, 92

Secondary bronchi, 655

Secondary consumers, 889, 890

Secondary endosymbiosis, 405

Secondary growth, 435, 527, 533–534

Secondary immune response, 817

Secondary lamellae, 650–651

Secondary lysosomes, 71

Secondary metabolites

identification of, 239

in plant chemical defenses, 593–594, 595

plant self-defenses against, 596

Secondary phloem, 533

Secondary protein structure, 44–45, 46

Secondary sexual characteristics, 770–771

Secondary xylem, 435, 533

Secretin, 639

Secretion, 93

Sedimentary rocks

dating, 358–359

defined, 358

formation, 418

strata, 358

Seed coat, 435

Seed plants

in the evolution of plants, 422

gymnosperms, 435–438

life cycle, 432–435

major groups, 424

pollination, 434

secondary growth and wood, 435

seed structure, 435

Seedless grapes, 560

Seedling, 556–557

Seeds

dispersal, 577–578

dormancy, 556, 567

embryo structure and development, 577, 578

fruits and dispersal, 443–444, 883

germination, 556–557, 560–561, 566–567

gymnosperms, 437–438

in mutualisms, 883

structure, 435

Segment polarity genes, 287

Segmentation

in animal body plans, 473–474, 475

in animal development, 800, 801

in annelids, 484

in fruit flies, 285–288

Segmentation genes, 286–287

Segregation, Mendel’s law of, 153–154

Selectable marker genes, 258, 260–261

Selective permeability, 87

Self, distinguishing from nonself, 816, 824

Self antigens, 824

Self-compatibility, 336, 337

Self-incompatibility, 336, 337, 576

Self-pollination, 576

“Selfish DNA,” 247

Semelparous animals, 783–784

Semen, 780

Semi-dwarf grains, 555, 570–571

Semibalanus balanoides, 887, 888

Semicircular canal, 718

Semiconservative replication, 179–186

Seminal vesicles, 780

Seminiferous tubules, 772

Senescence, delayed by cytokinins, 566

Sensation, neural basis of, 715

Sensors, in control systems, 619

Sensory neurons

function of, 724

spinal reflexes, 727

Sensory processes

auditory systems, 717–718, 719

functions of, 714

neural basis of sensation, 715

sensory receptor cells and sensory transduction, 714

smell and olfactory receptor cells, 716–717

stretch receptor cells, 716

visual systems, 719–723

Sensory receptor cells

defined, 714

sensory receptor proteins and, 715

sensory transduction and, 714

types of, 715

See also Chemoreceptors; Ionotropic receptor cells; Mechanoreceptors; Metabotropic receptor cells; Photoreceptors

Sensory receptor proteins, 715

Sensory transduction, 714

Sepals, 439, 574

I-36

Sepioteuthis lessoniana, 486

Sepsis, 814

Septa, 451, 452

Septate hyphae, 451, 452

Sequential hermaphrodites, 775, 776

Serengeti Plain, 855, 856

Serine, 43

Serpentine, 865

Sertoli cells, 772, 781

Setae, 484–485

Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), 397

Sex, 769

Sex changes, 775, 776

Sex chromosomes

in Drosophila, 164

sex determination in animals, 775

sex-linked inheritance, 164–165, 166

Sex determination, 774–775

Sex-linked inheritance, 164–165, 166, 169–170

Sex pilus, 168

Sex steroids

function in sexual development, 746–747

regulation of mammalian reproduction, 776–777, 778–779, 780, 781

Sexual development, 746–747

Sexual intercourse, 777

Sexual life cycles

diversity in, 131–132

meiosis and the generation of genetic diversity, 130–131

Sexual recombination, 318–319

Sexual reproduction

advantages and disadvantages, 769–770

in angiosperms (see Angiosperm sexual reproduction)

in animals, 769–776 (see also Animal reproduction)

defined, 769

diversity in sexual life cycles, 131–132

fungi, 458

generation of genetic diversity, 130–131

protists, 414–415

See also Life cycles; Plant life cycles

Sexual selection, 306, 307

Sexually transmitted diseases, 387

Sharks

internal fertilization, 773–774

key features, 503–504

sperm transfer in, 774

ventilation of gills, 651

Sheep, cloning of, 276, 277

Shelley, Mary, 60

Shellfish, red tides, 401

Shells, molluscan, 487

Shimomura, Osamu, 325

Shivering, 613–614

Shoot apical meristem, 527

in the embryo, 524

products of, 530

transition to flowering, 579–580

Shoot system, structure and function, 522

Shoots

early shoot development, 557

gravitropism, 562

primary growth, 530–531

Shore crabs, 805

Short-day plants, 580–582

Short tandem repeats (STRs), 247, 250

Shrews, 514

Shrimp, 493

Shull, George, 160

Sialia sialis, 883

Siamese cats, “point restriction” coat patterns, 160–162

Sickle-cell disease, 188, 196

Side chains

of amino acids, 43–44

in enzyme-catalyzed reactions, 51

Sieve plate, 526

Sieve tube cells, 552

Sieve tube elements, 526

Sigma factors, 220

Signal sequences, 211–212, 266

Signal transduction pathways

caffeine’s effect on the brain and, 102–103

in cell signaling, 95

chemical signals, 95–96

genetic switches in development and, 289

innate defenses and, 810, 811, 813

receptors, 96–98

regulation of, 101–102

roles of enzymes and signal amplification in, 100–101

second messengers, 99, 100

See also Cell signaling; Plant signal transduction pathways

Silencers, 223

Silene dioica, 574

Silent mutations, 187, 205

Silent substitutions, 313

See also Synonymous substitutions

Silica, 408

Silicon dioxide, 476

Silkworm moths, 782

Silurian period, 360–361, 372

Silver salts, 565

Silverfish, 494–495

Simple diffusion, 87–88, 92

Simple epithelium, 615, 616, 632–633

Simple fruits, 443–444

Simple sugars, 27

Sinervo, Barry, 871

Single covalent bonds, 21

Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), 248, 251

Single-stranded RNA viruses

negative sense, 396–397

positive-sense, 397–398

Sinks, 526, 551, 553

Sinoatrial node, 668–669, 670

Siphonaptera, 495

Siphonops annulatus, 507

Sirenians, 514

Sister chromatids

condensation in prophase, 134–135, 136

in meiosis, 140, 141, 142, 143

separation during mitosis, 135, 137

Sister clades, 327

Sister species, 327, 348

Sitophilus oryzae, 872, 904

Sitta canadensis, 901

Skates, 504

Skeletal muscles

antagonistic pairs, 689, 690, 727

attachment and pulling on endoskeletons, 688–689

attachment and pulling on exoskeletons, 689–690

contraction, 682–688 (see also Muscle contraction)

effects of training on, 693–694

nervous and endocrine control, 719, 733, 735

neuromuscular junctions, 710–711

power output and ATP supply, 691–692

slow oxidative and fast glycolytic cells, 692–693

spinal reflexes, 726–727

structure of muscle fibers, 682–684

Skeletal systems

cartilaginous fish, 504

endoskeletons, 688–689

hydrostatic skeletons, 473, 690–691

See also Exoskeletons

Skin

induced pluripotent stem cells, 279

in innate defenses, 812

Skin diseases, 384

Skull, growth in humans and chimpanzees, 516, 517

Sleeping sickness, 411

Sliding-filament theory

actin–myosin interactions and ATP, 684–685

excitation–contraction coupling, 685–688

overview, 682

Slime, 528

Slime molds

cellular, 413–414

plasmodial, 412–413

Sloths, 514

Slow oxidative cells (slow-twitch cells)

characteristics of, 692–693

effect of training on, 694

Slow synapses, 712

Slug (cellular slime molds), 414

Small interfering RNAs (siRNAs), 263, 593

Small intestines, 637

Small nuclear ribonucleoprotein particles (snRNPs), 202

Smell, 716–717

Smith, Hamilton, 60, 240

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER)

eukaryotic cells, 66, 67

structure and function, 69, 70

Smooth muscle, 695–696

Smut fungi, 465

Snails

gastrulation, 796

mosaic development, 791

Snakeflies, 495

Snakes

key features, 508, 510

loss of forelimbs, 292

perception of infrared wavelengths, 722–723

“Snowball Earth” hypothesis, 367–368

Social behavior, 827, 839–841

Societies, 839–841

Sociobiology (Wilson), 302

Sockeye salmon, 783

Sodium chloride

ionic attractions, 24–25

See also Salts

Sodium ion channels

action potentials and, 707–708

evolution of TTX-resistant channels, 321

graded changes in membrane potential, 706

in muscle contraction, 97

at neuromuscular junctions, 711

in photoreceptor cells, 719, 720

Sodium/Sodium ions

in animal nutrition, 629

electronegativity, 23

at neuromuscular junctions, 711

removal during urine formation, 762–763

in stimulus reception, 715

See also Water–salt balance

Sodium–potassium pump, 704

Sodium–potassium (Na+–K+) pump, 92

Soil conservation, 553–554

Soil microbes, plant nutrition and, 541–545

Soils

erosion, 537, 553

fertilizers, 541

horizons, 540

impact on vegetation, 856

leaching, 540

living and nonliving components, 539

mineral nutrients for plants, 539–540

nutrients and net primary productivity, 919

saline, 600–601

saturated, 599

sustainable agriculture and, 553–554

Solanum tuberosum, 532

Solar energy

I-37

atmospheric circulation patterns and, 850–851

greenhouse effect and, 926–927

seasonality and, 849, 850

See also Photons

Solstices, 849, 850

Solutes

osmotic pressure and osmosis, 88–89

simple diffusion, 87–88

Solvents, 23

Somatic cells, 131, 771–773

Somatic mutations, 186

Somatosensory cortex, 728, 729, 730

Somites, 800, 801

Song learning behavior, 831

Sonic hedgehog (Shh) protein

eye development and, 294

holoprosencephaly and, 787, 806

neural tube differentiation and, 800

vertebrate limb development and, 283

Sooty mangabeys, 334, 335

Soredia, 456, 457

Sori, 430–431

Soricomorpha, 514

Sounds, detection by auditory systems, 717–718, 719

Sources, 526, 551, 553

Southeast trade winds, 851

Southern beeches, 858–859

Soy sauce, 464

Soybean monoculture, 862

Soybeans, 244

Spawning, 773

Speciation

allopatric speciation, 348–349

controlled laboratory experiments in, 356

defined, 344

Lake Malawi cichlids, 343

reproductive isolation and, 346–347, 351–355 (see also Reproductive isolation)

sympatric speciation, 350–351

Species

cost–benefit analysis of species relationships, 842

defined, 344

importance of animal behavior in maintaining, 841

number of fossil species, 367

reproductive isolation and, 344–345

species concepts, 344–345

Species abundance. See Abundance

Species coexistence, 888–889, 892, 894

Species composition

determinants of, 899

turnover in, 900–903

variation along environmental gradients, 900, 901

Species concepts, 344–345

Species’ distributions

effect of interspecific interactions on, 887, 888

as a reflection of environmental effects on per capita growth rates, 870–872

Species diversity

community function and, 904–906

components of, 905

habitat restoration and, 912, 913

Species evenness, 905

Species interactions

evolution and, 892–896

impact of global climate change on, 929–930, 931

interaction webs, 889–892

See also Interspecific interactions

Species introductions, 891–892

Species names. See Binomial nomenclature

Species richness

defined, 905

habitat fragmentation and, 911–912

latitudinal gradients in, 906–907

net primary productivity and, 905–906

variation with size and location of oceanic islands, 907–908, 909

Specific immunity, in plants, 591–593

Spectacled caiman, 510

Spemann, Hans, 789, 799

Sperm (spermatozoa)

in angiosperm sexual reproduction, 442, 443, 575–577

in animal reproduction, 769, 773–774, 777, 788

gametic isolation, 353

in semen, 780

spermatogenesis, 771–772

storage in the female reproductive tract, 782

Spermatogenesis, 771–772, 781

Spermatophores, 774

Spermicides, 781

Spermophilus beldingi, 839

Sphenodon punctatus, 509

Sphincter muscles, 635, 637

Sphinx moth, 420, 681

Spicules, 475–476, 477

Spiders

characteristics of, 492

excretion of nitrogenous wastes, 756

web spinning behavior, 828

Spike mosses, 429

Spikelets, 440

Spikes, 440

Spina bifida, 798

Spinal cord

glial cells, 701

spinal reflexes, 726–727

in the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions, 725, 726

tracts, 701

Spinal reflexes, 726–727

Spindle, 135

Spines, of xerophytes, 598

Spinifex grasslands, 855, 856

Spiny anteater, 340

Spiny insectivores, 514

Spiny lizards, 871, 872

Spiracles, 494, 654

Spiral cleavage, 790–791

Spirillum (spirilla pl.), 381

Spirochetes, 386

Spliceosomes, 202

Splicing, 201–202

Sponge method, 781

Sponges

characteristics of, 475–477

choanocytes, 471

respiratory gas exchange in, 648–649

Spongy mesophyll, 531

Spontaneous abortion, 145

Spontaneous mutations, 189, 190

Spontaneous ovulation, 778–779, 784

Sporangia

ferns, 430–431

land plants, 424

plasmodial slime molds, 413

Sporangiophores, 460, 461

Spores

cyanobacteria, 385–386

fungi, 453, 458

homospory and heterospory in plants, 431–432

in the life cycle of land plants, 424

Sporocytes, 415

Sporophytes

in the life cycle of land plants, 424–452

in plant evolution, 433

of vascular plants, 428

Sporoplasm, 460

Sporopollenin, 433

Sporulation, 220

Spotted hyenas, 833, 834

Springtails, 494

Squamates, 508, 510

Squids

body plan and features of, 486, 487

giant axons, 709

nitrogen excretion, 755

spermatophores, 774

Sr24 gene, 602, 603

SRY gene, 746, 775

Stabilizing selection, 310–311

Stamens, 434, 439, 440, 574

Standard amino acids, 627

Stapes, 717, 718

Staphylococci, 241, 384

Staphylococcus, 384, 450

Staphylococcus aureus, 194, 384

Star anise, 445

Star navigation, 831

Star-nosed moles, 699, 730, 731

Starch

molecular and macromolecular structure, 28

produced in plants, 124

Starch branching enzyme 1 (SBE1), 154

Starling, E. H., 675–676

Start codon, 204

Statistical methods, 13–14

Stele, of roots, 528–529

Stem cells

in “knockout” experiments, 263

in mammals, 277–279

multipotent, 278–279

plant meristems, 276–277

pluripotent, 279

Stems

apical hook and ethylene, 565–566

elongation and gibberellins, 560

function, 522

modifications, 531, 532

secondary growth, 533–534

Steno, Nicolaus, 358

Stereocilia, 717, 718

Sterilization, 781

Sternum, of birds, 511

Steroid hormones

carrier proteins, 740

in plants, 566

receptor proteins, 738

secretion, 739

structure and function, 638, 737

See also Sex steroids

Sterols, 594

Steward, Frederick, 275

Stick insects, 495

Stigmas, 439, 440–441, 442

Stimulus-gated sodium channels, 715

Stingrays, 504

Stock, 587

Stolons, 585, 586

Stomach, 637

Stomata

and atmospheric CO2, 926

control of water loss and gas exchange, 525, 550–551

structural adaptations in xerophytes, 598

Stomatal crypt, 598

Stone, Edward, 37

Stone cells, 526

Stoneflies, 495

Stoneworts, 421, 422, 423

Stop codon, 204

Storms, global warming and, 927, 931

“Strain 121,” 388

Stramenopiles, 408–409

Strata, 358

Stratigraphy, 358

Strawberry plants, 531, 532

Strepsiptera, 495

Streptococcus pneumoniae, 64–65

Streptomyces, 385

Streptomycin, 385

Streptophytes, 421, 422

Stress, epigenetic gene expression and, 229

“Stress hormone,” in plants, 567

I-38

Stress response, in plants, 224, 225

Stretch-gated ion channels, 705, 706, 716

Stretch receptor cells, 716

Striated muscle, 684

Striga, 544–545

Strigolactones, 542, 544–545

Strobili, 429

Stroke volume, 667

Stroma, 72, 119, 124–125

Stromatolites, 4, 364–365

Strongylocentrotus purpuratus, 499

Structural genes, 219

Structure

of ecological communities, 899

of habitats, 900, 901

See also DNA structure; Form and function interrelationships; Proteins; Structure—function relationships; Form and function interrelationships

Structure—function relationships

In ecological communities, 904–905

See also Form and function interrelationships

Struthio camelus, 510

Styles, 439

Subclavian artery and vein, 668

Subduction, 361, 362

Submucosa, 635, 636

Subpopulations, 876–877, 878–880

Subsoil, 540

Substrates, 51

Subtropical desert, 855

Succession, 901–903

Succulence, 598

Sucrose

structure, 27

translocation in phloem, 552–553

Sugar beets, 105, 126

Sugars

produced by photosynthesis, 124, 125

See also Monosaccharides

Sulfhydryl group, 25

Sulfolobus, 389

Sulfur

covalent bonding capacity, 22

cycle, 926

prokaryotes and the sulfur cycle, 396

Sulfur dioxide, 363

Sulfur fertilizers, 541

Sulfurous acid, 363

Sumerians, 105

Summation, of postsynaptic potentials, 712–713

Sun compass, 836

Sunflowers, 602

Superior vena cava, 668

Suprachiasmatic nucleus, 621, 722

Surface area-to-volume ratio, 61–62

Surface tension, 24

Surface winds, 851

Survivorship, 868

Suspension feeders, 630

Suspensor, 524

Sustainable agriculture, 553–554

Sutherland, Earl, 99, 100

Sutterella, 392

Swallowtail butterfly, 497

Swarm cells, 413

Sweat glands, 512

Sweating, 614

Swim bladders, 504

Swordtail fish, 335–336

Sxl gene, 229

Sycon, 477

Symbiodinium, 417, 631

Symbioses

fungi and, 455

lichens, 455–456, 457

nutritionally important animal–microbe symbioses, 630–632

plant–microbe interactions, 541–545

of plants with nitrogen-fixing bacteria, 373

Symmetry

in animal body plans, 473

See also specific types of symmetry

Sympathetic nervous system

fight-or-flight response, 726, 739

structure and function, 725, 726

Sympatric populations, 354

Sympatric speciation, 350–351

Symplast, 547, 548, 553

Synapses

chemical, 709–710

defined, 700, 734

electrical, 709–710

fast or slow, 712

neuromuscular junctions, 710–711

neurosecretory cells and, 736–737

neurotransmitters, 711–712

summation of postsynaptic potentials, 712–713

Synapsis, 142, 143–144

Synaptic cleft, 709, 710

Synaptic plasticity, 713–714

Syncytium, 792, 793

Synergids, 575, 577

Synonymous substitutions

defined, 313

evolution of flu strains and, 323

in positive and purifying selection, 314–316

Synthetic cells, 60

Synthetic DNA, 262

Systematics, 327

Systemic acquired resistance, 592–593

Systemic circuit

in amphibians and non-avian reptiles, 666–667

in birds, 666

defined, 665

in fish, 665–666

in mammals, 666, 668

Systemic lupus erythematosis (SLE), 816

Systemic tissues, 649, 665

Systems

defined, 7, 846, 917

in thermodynamics, 32

open versus closed, 876, 920

See also Ecological Systems; Ecosystems; Feedback; Organ systems; Systems analysis

Systems analysis

control systems, 619–622, 734–736

enzymes and biochemical pathways, 53, 117

general principles, 8–9

negative feedback in, 8, 619–620

positive feedback in, 8, 620

systems diagrams, 7–9

See also Cocurrent systems; Countercurrent systems; Ecosystems; various organ systems, such as Circulatory system and Central nervous system

Systole, 667–668, 669

Szostak, Jack, 80

T

T4 bacteriophage, 221

T cell receptors

specificity, 816

structure and function, 822, 823

T cells

AIDS and, 824–825

antigen presentation and, 817

cellular immune response, 822–824

diversity and clonal selection, 816, 817

functions, 811

specificity, 816

T DNA, 259

T-helper (TH) cells

AIDS and, 824, 825

cellular immune response, 822–823, 824

functions of, 817–818

humoral immune response and, 823

regulation by Tregs, 824

T tubules, 686, 687

Tachyglossus aculeatus, 340

Tachypleus tridentatus, 810

Tadpoles, 805

Taeniura lymma, 504

Tail fins, 503, 504

Tail-less frogs, 506

Tailed salamanders, 506

Tamarugo tree, 598

Tamias striatus, 864

Tannins, 594

Taproots, 529, 530, 531, 532

Taraxacum officinale, 442

Tardigrades, 476, 491

Target cells

action of hormones on, 739

in intercellular communication, 734

receptor proteins, 737–738

sequence of hormonal signaling, 739

Tarsiers, 514, 515

Tat protein, 226

TATA box, 222

Tautomers, 189, 190

Taxon (pl. taxa)

defined, 327

Linnaean classification, 338–339

monophyletic, 339

Tay-Sachs disease, 71

Tea, 82

Tectorial membrane, 717, 718

Teeth, evolution in vertebrates, 503

Telomerase, 184

Telomeres, 183–184

Telophase

meiosis I, 141

mitosis, 135, 136, 137

Temperate grassland/desert, 855

Temperate seasonal forest, 855

Temperature

climate diagrams, 853

global warming, 926, 928 (see also Climate change; Global warming)

greenhouse effect, 926–927

impact on enzymes, 56–57

impact on membranes, 85

impact on protein structure, 47

induction of flowering, 584

influence on terrestrial biomes, 854

and lizard feeding, 871

net primary productivity and, 918

plant adaptations to temperature extremes, 600

See also Body temperature; Latitudinal temperature gradients

Temperature-sensitive mutations, 187

Template strand

in DNA expression, 197

in DNA replication, 179

Temporal isolation, 351, 352

Temporal lobe, 728

Tendons, 689

Tendrils, 531, 532

Teosinte, 534–535

TEOSINTE BRANCHED 1 gene, 535

Tepals, 440

Ter region, 132

Terminal bud, 527

Termination

of transcription, 199

of translation, 209, 210

Termination factors, 225

Termites, 495

Terpenes, 594

Terrestrial animals

excretion of nitrogenous wastes, 755–756

water–salt balance, 759–760

Terrestrial biomes, 854–856

Territories

I-39

behavioral partitioning, 841–842

defined, 842

Tertiary consumers, 889, 890

Tertiary endosymbiosis, 405

Tertiary period, 360–361, 371, 373–374

Tertiary protein structure, 45–46

Test crosses, 154, 155

Testate amoebas, 412

Testes

castration and, 733

cell types in, 772

endocrine functions, 736, 744

in mammals, 780

as primary reproductive organs, 770

sex steroids and sexual development, 746, 747

sex steroids and the regulation of mammalian reproduction, 776, 781

spermatogenesis, 771–772

testosterone and, 733, 772

Testosterone

actions of, 744

castration and, 733

discovery of, 733

production by interstitial cells, 772

role in sexual development, 746, 747

spermatogenesis in mammals, 781

structure, 738

Testudo hermanni, 787

Tetanus, 394

Tetracycline, 194, 213

Tetrads, 142, 143–144

Tetrahymena thermophila, 407

Tetraiodothyronine, 740

Tetrapods, 505

Tetrodotoxin (TTX), 321

Texas Longhorn cattle, 311–312

TFIID protein, 222

Thale cress. See Arabidopsis

Thallus, 456

Thaumarchaeota, 388, 390

Thecal cells, 772–773, 778, 779

Theory, 11

Therians, 512–514

See also Eutherians

Thermodynamics, laws of, 32–34

Thermoneutral zone (TNZ), 610–611

Thermophiles, 388, 389, 390

Thermoplasma, 390

Thermoregulation, in homeotherms, 610–611, 613–614

Thermotoga, 385

Thermotoga maritima, 382

Thermus, 385

Thermus aquaticus, 385

Theropods, 510, 511

Thiamin, 628

Thlaspi caerulescens, 601–602

Thoracic cavity, 655, 656, 657

Thorax, 494

Threonine, 43

Thrips, 495

Thromboxanes, 58

Thucydides, 809

Thylakoids, 72, 121–123

Thymine

base pairing, 38–40, 41

in DNA, 176, 177

in DNA replication, 179

structure, 38

Thymosins, 744

Thymus, 744

Thyroid gland

goiter, 745–746

major hormones and their actions, 744, 745

Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)

actions of, 744

goiter and, 745–746

releasing hormone for, 742

as a tropic hormone, 741

Thyroxine

functions, 745

half-life, 739

peripheral activation, 740

structure and function, 737, 738, 744

Thysanoptera, 495

Ti plasmid, 259

Ticks, 492

Tidal ventilation, 646–647, 651–652

Tidal volume, 656

Tight junctions, 78, 79

Tijuana Estuary, 913

Tiktaalik, 506

Tilman, David, 905–906

Tinamous, 511

Tissue fluids

fluid compartments, 615–616

internal environment and, 609

open circulatory systems, 664, 665

Tissue plasminogen activator, 267

Tissue-specific promoters, 265

Tissue systems

defined, 525

of plants, 524, 525–526

Tissues

defined, 6, 524–525, 616

plant tissue systems, 524, 525–526

Titin, 683, 684

Toads

characteristics of, 506

hopping behavior and ATP production, 832–833

hybrid zones, 354–355

Tobacco hornworms, 593

Tobacco plants, photoperiod and flowering, 580

Tobacco smoke, epigenetic gene expression and, 229

Tocopherol, 682

Toll-like receptors, 810

Tomatoes, salt-tolerant transgenics, 269–270

Tonicella lineata, 486

Topography, 852–853

Topsoil, 540

Torpedo, 696–697

Tortoiseshell cats, 228

Totipotency

defined, 275

nuclear totipotency in animals, 276, 277

of plant cells, 275–276

plant development and, 523

Touch perception, nose tentacles of star-nosed moles, 699, 730, 731

Toxigenicity, 394

Toxins, bacterial, 394

Toxoplasma, 406

Trachea, 649, 654, 655

Tracheae, 653–654

Tracheal breathing systems, 653–654

Tracheids, 421, 428, 526

Tracheophytes, 421

See also Vascular plants

Trachoma, 387

Tracts, 701

Trade winds, 851

Trail following behavior, 834–835

“Training effect,” 693–694

Traits

ancestral and derived, 328

defined, 151

homoplasies, 328

Mendelian inheritance, 151–158

quantitative, 160

Trametes versicolor, 465

Transcription

chromatin remodeling and, 226–227

coding regions and introns, 199–201

complementary base pairing and, 41

defined, 197

in the expression of genetic information, 40, 41

inducers and inducible genes, 217

initiation, elongation, and termination, 198–199

key components, 197–198

phytochrome-mediated effects in plants, 569–570

RNA polymerases, 198, 199

start and stop signals, 210

Transcription factor genes, floral organ development in plants, 284, 285

Transcription factors

actions at promoters, 222–223

cell differentiation and, 223–224

coordinated gene expression and, 224, 225

CREB, 215, 227, 232

cytoplasmic determinants, 280

in gene regulation, 216, 222–223

histone modifications and, 227

Transcription initiation site, 198

Transcriptional regulation

compared to allosteric regulation, 219–220

in eukaryotes, 222–225

life cycles of eukaryotic viruses, 225–226

in prokaryotes, 216–220

regulatory proteins in, 216

RNA polymerase and sigma factors, 220

viral reproduction, 220–221

Transfer RNA (tRNA)

structure, 206

in translation, 197, 206–207, 208–209, 210

tRNA genes, 246, 247

Transformation

defined, 258

methods in, 258–260

model organisms, 258

reporter genes, 260–261

Transformation experiments, 174, 175

Transformation vectors, 259–260

Transgenic organisms, 174, 258

Transition state, 50

Translation

action of antibiotics and, 213

defined, 197

in the expression of genetic information, 40, 41

function of ribosomes in, 207–208

function of tRNA in, 206–207

initiation, elongation, and termination, 208–209, 210

polysomes, 209–210

regulation of, 230–231

start and stop signals, 210

Translational repressor proteins, 231

Translocase, 387

Translocations, 146, 189, 551–553

Transmembrane proteins, 85

Transpiration

defined 549

stomatal control of, 550–551

transpiration–cohesion–tension mechanism, 548–550

and water cycle, 921, 922

Transposons

DNA mutations and, 247

eukaryotic genomes, 246, 247

as experimental mutagens, 242, 243

in the human genome, 247, 248

in prokaryotic genomes, 241–242

Transverse tubules, 686, 687

Transverse (T) tubules, 711

Treadmills, 605

Tree ferns, 429

Tree of life, 4–5, 374

Tree shrews, 514

Trees, secondary growth and annual rings, 533–534

Tregs, 824, 825

Trehalase, 634, 638

Trehalose, 634

Triassic period, 360–361, 373

Triceros jacksonii, 509

Trichinella spiralis, 489

Trichinosis, 489

Trichocysts, 407

I-40

Trichomes, 525, 598

Trichomonas vaginalis, 410, 411

Trichoptera, 495

Triglycerides, 29–30, 94–95

Triiodothyronine, 740, 744, 745

Trimeresurus gramineus, 723

Trimesters, 803

Triodia, 855, 856

Triops longicaudatus, 493

Triose phosphate, 124

Triple covalent bonds, 22

Trisomy, 145

Triterpenes, 594

Triticum aestivum, 446

Trochopores, 480, 481

Trophic cascades, 890–891, 912

Trophic interactions, 889, 890, 921

Trophic levels, 889, 890, 904

Trophoblast, 793, 794

Trophosomes, 485

Tropic hormones, 741

Tropical biomes, 854, 855

Tropical forests, habitat

fragmentation and, 911, 912

Tropical rain forests, 855

Tropical seasonal forest/savanna, 855

Tropics

atmospheric circulation patterns, 850–851

biomes, 854, 855

species richness in, 906–907

Tropins, 741

Tropomyosin, 685, 687, 688

Troponin, 685, 687, 688

Trp operon, 218, 219–220

True bugs, 495, 496, 497

True flies, 495, 496, 497

Truffles, 464

Trypanosoma brucei, 411

Trypanosoma cruzi, 411

Trypsin, 633, 634

Tryptophan, 43, 219, 737

Tsien, Roger, 325

TTX-resistant sodium channels, 321

Tuataras, 508, 509

Tubal ligation, 781

Tube feet, 498, 499

Tuberculosis, 385

Tubers, 531, 532, 585–586

Tubular fluid, 762, 763

Tubulidentata, 514

Tubulin

microtubules, 74

mitotic spindle, 135

Tulipa, 446

Tulips, 446

Tumor necrosis factor, 813

Tumor suppressors, 148

Tunas

circulatory system, 661

countercurrent heat exchange, 675, 678–679

gills, 661

swimming muscles, 661, 675, 689

ventilation of gills, 651

Tundra, 854, 855

Tunicates, 476, 500–501

Turbill, Christopher, 625

Turgor pressure, 72, 89, 545–546

Turkana people, 869, 870

Turnover, in species composition, 900–903

Tursiops truncatus, 513

Turtles, 510, 775

Twisted-wing parasites, 495

Two-dimensional gel electrophoresis, 238, 239

Two-pronged bristletails, 494

Tylenol, 37

Tympanic canal, 718

Tympanic membrane, 717, 718

Tympanuchus cupido, 305

Type II diabetes mellitus, 738

Typhoid fever, 809

Tyrosine, 43, 195, 738

U

Ubiquitin, 231

Ug99 wheat rust strain, 589

Ulcers, 393

Ulmus procera, 586

Ulna, 292–293

Ultimate explanations, 11

Ultrabithorax gene, 289–290, 291–292

Ultrafiltration, 761

Ultraviolet (UV) radiation, 4, 190, 191

Ultraviolet wavelengths, perception of, 722, 723

Ulva latuca, 423

Umbels, 440

Unicellular yeasts, 451

Unidirectional ventilation

in bird lungs, 652–653

defined, 647

in gills, 647, 651

Unipotency, 275

Unsaturated fatty acids

in membranes, 85

structure and properties, 29–30

Upwellings, 852

Uracil

base pairing, 38

formed from cytosine deamination, 189, 190

structure, 38

Urea, 755, 756

Ureotelic animals, 756

Ureter, 753

Urethra, 753, 780

Urey, Harold, 34, 35

Uric acid, 755, 756

Uricotelic animals, 756

Urinary bladder, 753

Urine

alkaptonuria, 195

defined, 752

of desert kangaroo rats, 759–760

of hyposmotic regulators, 757

produced by the kidneys from blood plasma, 752–753, 760–764, 765

urine/plasma ratios, 753–754

Urine/plasma ratios, 753–754

U.S. Supreme Court, 253

U.S.–Mexico Borderlands, 855

changes in climate and species composition, 902, 903

ecological importance of fire, 856

impact of cattle grazing on, 845

restoration efforts, 845, 862–863

Usnea, 456

Uterus

birth contractions, 620, 780

blastocyst implantation, 777, 793, 794

pregnancy, 779–780

UV radiation. See Ultraviolet radiation

V

Vaccines/Vaccinations, 298, 323, 825–826

Vacuoles

contractile, 73, 407

digestive, 407

functions, 72–73

in plant cells, 67

Vagina, 777

Valine, 43, 196

van der Waals interactions, 22, 45, 177

Vancomycin, 169

Variable region, 819

Variables, 13

Vas deferens, 772, 780

Vascular bundles, 530–531, 533

Vascular cambium, 527, 533

Vascular endothelium, 663

Vascular plants

defined, 421

evolution and diversification, 428–432

in the evolution of plants, 422

heterospory, 431–432

impact on atmospheric oxygen levels, 365

major groups, 424

vascular tissue, 428

Vascular system

blood pressure and the linear velocity of blood flow, 673–674

countercurrent heat exchange, 674–675

defined, 673

fluid loss in capillaries, 675–676

lymphatic system, 676

types and functions of blood vessels, 673

Vascular tissue

of vascular plants, 428

See also Phloem; Xylem

Vascular tissue system

description of, 524, 526

of leaves, 531

primary meristem creating, 527

of roots, 528–529

of shoots, 530–531

Vasectomy, 781

Vasomotor control, 663

Vasopressin. See Antidiuretic hormone

Vectors,

in disease, 864, 880

in genetic transformation, 259–260

Vegetal hemisphere, 789, 792, 794

“Vegetal pole,” 280

Vegetative cells, 385

Vegetative reproduction, 585–586, 587

Veins

in closed circulatory systems, 663

countercurrent heat exchange, 674–675

direction of blood flow in, 665

structure and function, 673, 674

Velvet worms, 491

Venter, Craig, 60, 240

Ventilation

in cocurrent and countercurrent gas exchange systems, 649–650

defined, 646

of fish gills, 651

tidal, 646–647, 651–652

unidirectional, 647, 651

Ventral, 473

Ventral nerve, 724

Ventricles

in amphibians and non-avian reptiles, 666–667

mammalian heart, 667–668

Venules, 663, 673–674

Venus flytrap, 544, 545

Veratrum californicum, 787, 806

Veratrum viride, 787

Vernalization, 584

Vertebral column, 501, 502

Vertebrate digestive system

anatomy of, 635, 636

digestive enzymes, 635–636

hindgut, 637, 638–639

midgut, 637–638

processing, digestion, and absorption of food, 636–638

reabsorption of water and salts, 638–639

Vertebrates

adaptations to life on land, 505–508

amniotes, 506, 508, 509

amphibians, 506–508

appendages, 474

body plan, 501, 502

cardiac muscle, 695

central nervous system, 724, 724

evolution of feathers and flight, 511

evolution of jaws and teeth, 503

evolution of limbs, 505

forebrain evolution, 727–728

jawless fishes, 501–503

key features, 500

kidney production of urine, 752–753

lobe-limbed, 504, 505–506

major subgroups, 476

mammals, 511–514 (see also Mammals)

I-41

morphogen gradients in limb development, 283

phylogeny of, 502

reptiles, 508–510

smooth muscle, 695–696

undiscovered living species, 518

Vervet monkeys, 839, 840

Vesicles

endocytosis, 93–95

exocytosis, 93

functions of, 68, 69, 70

Vespula vulgaris, 894

Vessel elements, 439, 526

Vessel lumen, 663

Vestibular canal, 718

Vestibular system, 718

Vibrio, 378, 387, 399

Vibrio cholerae, 387, 394

Victoria (Queen of England), 169, 170

Victoria cruziana, 445

Villi, 637, 638

Virions, 221

Viruses

abundance of, 396

bacteriophage transformation experiments, 174

difficulties in studying, 396

DNA viruses, 397, 399

evolution and, 298, 322–323

gene regulation and reproduction, 220–221

life cycles of eukaryotic viruses, 225–226

metagenomics, 241

pandemics, 298

as part of life, 396

phage therapy, 399

RNA viruses, 396–399

as transformation vectors, 259–260

Visceral mass, 485, 486

Visual cortex, 715, 721

Visual systems

perception of infrared and ultraviolet wavelengths, 722–723

photoreceptors and the detection of light, 718–719

vertebrate retina, 719–721

Vital capacity, 656

“Vital force,” 18

Vitamin A, 627–628

Vitamin A deficiency, 269

Vitamin B1, 628

Vitamin B2, 628

Vitamin B3, 628

Vitamin B5, 628

Vitamin B6, 628

Vitamin B12, 392, 628

Vitamin C, 682

Vitamin D, 682

Vitamin E, 682

Vitamin K, 392, 682

Vitamins, in animal nutrition, 627–628, 641

Vitelline artery, 802

Vitelline envelope, 774

Volcanoes

impact on climate and life, 363, 930

origins of, 361, 362

and sulfur cycle, 926

Volicitin, 595–596

Voltage, 702, 703

Voltage-gated channels

action potentials and, 707–708

membrane potential and, 705

at neuromuscular junctions, 711

in photoreceptors, 719

Voltage-gated ion channels, structure and function, 89

von Behring, Emil, 815

von Humboldt, Alexander, 906

Vulpes lagopus, 674

Vulpes vulpes, 784

Vulval development, in C. elegans, 281–282

W

Waggle dance, 837

Wagoire, William, 589

Wallace, Alfred Russel, 300, 857–858

Walter, Heinrich, 853

Wang, Yong-Xu, 694

Wasps

mechanical isolation in orchids and, 351

number of species, 495

Wastewater treatment, 271

Water

global cycle, 921–922

heat capacity, 23

heat of vaporization, 23

metabolic, 760

movement through aquaporins, 89–90

osmosis, 88–89

properties of hydrogen bonds, 23–24

reabsorption in the hindgut, 638–639

as a requirement for life, 18

stomatal control of water loss in plants, 550–551

supply, as ecosystem service, 911

xylem transport in plants, 545–550

See also Water–salt balance

Water bears, 491

Water cycle, 921–922

Water-depth zones, 857

Water fleas, 618 (see also Daphnia)

Water lily, 440, 445

Water molds, 408–409

Water potential, 545–546, 598

Water-soluble vitamins, 628

Water stress, impact on stomata, 551

Water vapor, as a greenhouse gas, 927, 928

Water vascular system, 498

Water–salt balance

in aquatic animals, 756–758

defined, 752

extrarenal salt excretion, 754–755

regulation of body fluid composition by the kidneys, 752–755

in salmon, 751, 766

terrestrial animals, 759–760

Watershed protection, 910

Watson, James D., 176–177, 178, 302

Wavelength,

of light, 119, 120

and temperature of an object, 926

Wavyleaf thistle, 892

Weather

defined, 362, 849

impact of global warming and climate change on, 927, 931

impact of mountains on, 852–853

Weathering, of parent rock, 540

Webbing, in hindlimb development, 290, 291

Webs/Web spinning, 492, 828

Webspinners, 495

Weedy seadragon, 505

Wegener, Alfred, 361

Weizmann, Chaim, 253

Welwitschia, 436

Welwitschia mirabilis, 436

Wernicke’s area, 728, 730

Wernig, Marius, 224

Westerlies, 851

Wetland restorations, 913

Wetlands, 856

Whale shark, 630

Wheat, 446

pathogenic fungi, 454, 589, 602, 603

semi-dwarf varieties, 555, 570–571

Wheat rust strain Ug99, 589, 602, 603

Whip scorpion, 488

Whippets, 251

White blood cells

in blood, 677

functions in the immune system, 811

types of, 811

White-footed mice, 830, 841, 864

White matter, 702

White spruce, 436

Widowbirds, 306, 307

Wild mustard, 303–304, 535

Wild type, 158

Willow bark, 37

Wilson, Edward O., 302, 907

Winds, 851

Wine, 126

Winged beetles, 496

Winged insects, 495–496, 497

Wings

development in insects, 289–290

evolution in birds and bats, 292–293, 328

evolution in insects, 495–496

Winter moths, 930, 931

Wishart, David, 250

Witchweed, 544, 545

Wolpert, Lewis, 283

Wolves, 890–891, 904, 912

Wood, secondary xylem, 435, 533

Woodchucks, 615

Woodland/shrubland, 854, 855

Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution (WHOI), 401

World Climate Conference, 932

World Meteorological Organization, 932

X

X chromosome inactivation, 228

X chromosomes

heterochromatin and inactivation, 228

sex determination in animals, 775

sex-linked hemophilia, 169, 170

sex-linked traits in Drosophila, 164–166

X-linked inherited diseases, 824

X-ray crystallography, 174, 175

Xanthopan morgani, 420

Xanthoria parietina, 456

Xenopus laevis, 454

Xeric terrestrial animals, 759–760

Xerophytes, 598

Xestospongia, 477

Xiphophorus, 335–336

Xylem

of angiosperms, 439

function, 428, 526

in leaves, 531

in roots, 529

secondary, 533

in shoots, 530–531

water and solute transport in, 545–550

wood and, 435

Xylocopa darwinii, 892, 894

Y

Y chromosomes

sex determination in animals, 775

SRY gene, 746, 775

Yamanaka, Shinya, 279

Yeasts

alcoholic fermentation, 116, 126

genetic transformation, 258

genome characteristics, 244

sac fungus yeasts, 462, 464

unicellular, 451

See also Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Yellow-bellied toad, 354–355

Yellow star-thistle, 891 (see also Centaurea solstistialis)

Yellowstone National Park, 890–891, 904, 912

Yellowstone to Yukon Conservation Initiative, 912

Yersinia, 387

Yersinia pestis, 394

Yews, 438

Yolk

effect on cleavage, 792

effect on gastrulation, 794

Yolk sac, 802–804

I-42

Z

Z-DNA (“zig-zag DNA”), 177

Z line, 683, 684

Zea mays, 574

Zeaxanthin, 568

Zebra butterflies, 895

Zebrafish, incomplete cleavage, 793

Zinc

in animal nutrition, 629

as an enzyme cofactor, 52

zinc-tolerant plants, 601–602

Zinnia, 440

Zone of cell division, 528

Zone of cell elongation, 528

Zone of cell maturation, 528

Zone of polarizing activity (ZPA), 283

Zoopagomycotina, 459

Zoospores, 460, 461

Zoraptera, 495

Zuckerkandl, Emile, 337

Zur-Hausen, Harald, 129

Zygomycota, 458, 459

Zygosporangium, 460, 461

Zygospore, 460, 461

Zygospore fungi

characteristics of, 459

in a phylogeny of the fungi, 458

reproduction in, 460–462

Zygote

in animal reproduction, 769, 777

defined, 274

development in plants, 524

egg and sperm contributions in animal development, 788

formation in fertilization, 131

implantation in placental mammals, 793, 794

polarity, 280, 788–789