Chapter 6. Eyewitness Testimony

6.1 Welcome

Think Like a Scientist
true
dependent variable
The factor that is observed and measured for change in an experiment, thought to be influenced by the independent variable; also called the outcome variable.
hypothesis
A tentative statement about the relationship between two or more variables; a testable prediction or question.
independent variable
The purposely manipulated factor thought to produce change in an experiment; also called the treatment variable.
misinformation effect
A memory-distortion phenomenon in which your existing memories can be altered if you are exposed to misleading information.

Think Like a Scientist

Eyewitness Testimony

By:

Susan A. Nolan, Seton Hall University

Sandra E. Hockenbury

REFERENCES

Frenda, Steven J.; Nichols, Rebecca M.; & Loftus, Elizabeth (2011). Current issues and advances in misinformation research. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 20, 20-23.

Innocence Project. (n.d.). Eyewitness misidentification. Retrieved from http://www.innocenceproject.org/causes-wrongful-conviction/eyewitness-misidentification (2013)

The Justice Project. (2007). Eyewitness identification: A policy review. Retrieved from https://public.psych.iastate.edu/glwells/The_Justice%20Project_Eyewitness_Identification_%20A_Policy_Review.pdf

Loftus, Elizabeth. (2013). 25 years of eyewitness science……finally pays off. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 8, 556-557.

Megreya, Ahmed M., & Burton, A. Mike (2008). Matching faces to photographs: Poor performance in eyewitness memory (without the memory). Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 14, 364-372.

Watkins v. Souders, 449 U.S. 341, 352 (1982) (Brennan, J. dissenting).

Wells, Gary L., & Olson, Elizabeth A. (2001). The other-race effect in eyewitness identification: What do we do about it? Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 7, 230-246.

FAQ

What is Think Like a Scientist?
Think Like a Scientist is a digital activity designed to help you develop your scientific thinking skills. Each activity places you in a different, real-world scenario, asking you to think critically about a specific claim.

Can instructors track your progress in Think Like a Scientist?
Scores from the five-question assessments at the end of each activity can be reported to your instructor. To ensure your privacy while participating in non-assessment features, which can include pseudoscientific quizzes or games, no other student response is saved or reported.

How is Think Like a Scientist aligned with the APA Guidelines 2.0?
The American Psychological Association’s “Guidelines for the Undergraduate Psychology Major” provides a set of learning goals for students. Think Like a Scientist addresses several of these goals, although it is specifically designed to develop skills from APA Goal 2: Scientific Inquiry and Critical Thinking.
“Eyewitness Testimony” covers many outcomes, including:

  • Interpret, design, and conduct basic psychological research: Define and explain the purpose of key research concepts that characterize psychological research [identify independent and dependent variables in a study]
  • Demonstrate psychology information literacy: Describe what kinds of additional information beyond personal experience are acceptable in developing behavioral explanations [compare the legal system and psychological science as sources of information about eyewitness identification]

6.2 Introduction

This activity invites you to test the claim that eyewitness testimony is typically accurate in identifying perpetrators of crimes. First, you’ll get a chance to be the eyewitness to a crime. You will then evaluate studies that have systematically examined the accuracy of eyewitness identification and testimony. Next, you’ll consider alternative explanations for these research findings. Finally, you’ll compare the legal system and psychological science as sources for information about eyewitness identification.

6.3 Identify the Claim

1

Identify the Claim

6.3.1 Are You a Good Eyewitness?

chapter_6_video

Eyewitness testimony is widely used in criminal court cases, in large part because most cases don’t have biological evidence such as DNA (The Justice Project, 2007). And it works—that is, it helps to convict people. In the words of the now-deceased Supreme Court Justice William Brennan, “there is almost nothing more convincing [to a jury] than a live human being who takes the stand, points a finger at the defendant, and says ’That's the one!’” (Brennan, 1982). But just because eyewitness testimony is convincing, doesn’t mean it’s accurate. Thinking like a scientist involves asking good questions. So, just how accurate is eyewitness testimony? If you witnessed a crime, do you think you could describe the perpetrator, and then later identify him or her? Let’s try it. Watch the video clip here. It shows a group of 10 volunteers partway through a day of memory tests they were taking for a TV documentary.

BBC Worldwide America, Inc.

Warning: This video stages a violent crime and contains strong language that some may find offensive.

6.3.2 Who Did It?

chapter_6_dot

You were just an eyewitness to a crime. Can you ID the person who committed the murder? Look closely at the ten photos shown here.

Happy face
BBC Worldwide America, Inc.

Question

KJ8eGjiX9mbUWTa/4957sP3zqgCLPCw8m+uQvbjy/3+Wd6R0Xus9jw7GFmxJpOauc23/IyWtxycQw4k2OfNyhEzyobbOGPnVXsLz8/CdZupwLw8Cu8u7848eGcQeIxkEeoR8gaB9pttiOF8q+/uuKB1jmXsSGw5bs5oeGof/fsQ0sr/yK67szTczJytuQAVIuNmqwBK4mp3mIPZGbZo00z/3Jla9I/IsztcDRx5taOpPD461GzpAedfphnGeHTSBjHCYVI/xVb8=

We’ll come back to the suspect you ID’d later in this activity, so you can see if you’re right.

6.3.3 Identify the Claim

Consider the discussion of eyewitness identification so far, as well as the video you just watched.

Question 6.1

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
Correct. We know that juries tend to be convinced by eyewitness testimony, but we don’t know how accurate that eyewitness testimony is. Researchers might test the accuracy of eyewitness identification by using a videos like the one you just watched.
Actually, the answer is A. We know that juries tend to be convinced by eyewitness testimony, but we don’t know how accurate that eyewitness testimony is. Researchers might test the accuracy of eyewitness identification by using a video like the one you just watched.

6.4 Evaluate the Evidence

2

Evaluate the Evidence

6.4.1 Testing the Claim

The hypothesis—the claim that eyewitness identification is typically accurate—has been tested many times by psychology researchers. And this is a case where the verdict is clear. Eyewitness identification is notoriously unreliable (Loftus, 2013). We know this in part because more than 300 people who had been convicted based on eyewitness testimony were later found innocent based on DNA evidence (Innocence Project, n.d.).

As just one example, Larry Fuller (pictured below) was identified as a rapist by an eyewitness. Fuller had a full beard, and the eyewitness originally said that the rapist had no facial hair (Justice Project, 2007). You can’t grow a full beard in a matter of hours or days! Still, this eyewitness identification was used to convict Fuller. In 2006, after 18 years in prison, Fuller was finally exonerated and released based on DNA evidence.

Larry Fuller addressing the media after his release from prison.
AP Photo/Ron Heflin

6.4.2 Research on Eyewitness Memory

Now let’s look at the psychological research on the problems with eyewitness memory. Psychology researchers have looked at how the misinformation effect can affect an eyewitness’ memory (Frenda & others, 2011). They also have examined how racial biases affect our ability to identify people accurately; specifically, people tend to misidentify people of other races more than people of their own race (Wells & Olsen, 2001). Further, some researchers have also taken a step back from the memory part of being an eyewitness, and have asked how well we encode information about people’s faces in the first place (Megreya & Burton, 2008). We’ll explore this face encoding study in more detail.

This photo shows three men who belong to the same race, which perhaps supports the misinformation effects of eyewitnesses.
Mads Perch/Getty Images
This is a photo of a group of three men who belong to the same race, which perhaps supports the misinformation effects of eyewitnesses.
Michael Heffernan/Getty Images
This is a photo of a group of four men who belong to the same race, which perhaps supports the misinformation effects of eyewitnesses.
Peopleimages/Getty Images

6.4.3 Identifying Faces, Part I

In this study, researchers tested participants’ ability to accurately identify someone without any time lag (Megreya & Burton, 2008). As the researchers put it, they wanted to test “eyewitness memory (without the memory).” They thought this would provide a baseline of the absolute best that people could do with eyewitness identification by removing the impact of time and memory on the identification.

The researchers showed their participants, university students in Egypt, a series of photos of men. Each time, the photo was accompanied by ten other photos. Half of the time, there was a different photo of the man from the original photo. Half of the time, the man from the original photo was not in the photo array at all. Try it for yourself. Look at the man in the top photo here. He may or may not be in the array of ten photos below it. Below the photo array, click the number of the photo that matches him, or the option that says “He’s not here.”

This photo shows different male faces and is used for an eyewitness memory test.
Megreya, Ahmed M.; Burton, A. Mike, Matching faces to photographs: Poor performance in eyewitness memory (without the memory). Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, Vol 14(4), 364-372, Dec 2008, APA reprinted with permission.

Question 6.2

nOkyfec61lraS5C8frESAOlUYfjlKRu/35lazhLaTpMuxi9+p/L84Lz2uWP3QBXHx7dvg0a1NdikCehc0qpNxVY3QIbqzbhtO6lPu1k7+tedzmkvm5NfMNmmK/+S0ycvYsV06EMWcg0V5YvZkYr5CFuhg5ej7+O2EbOZMr/ZaaXtRx1TfsqZMo2JScVtnb+rl1EPP0Lcf5d1Hmw/s2vVTLN1l6thTnCiOuORpZ1KKG8RDSdloN6scss6mNcX2VM6uzbJPTz4dzO3vJRsGtHrjjGv3rU=
You’re correct! The man in the top photo is not in any of the ten photos below.
Actually, the man in the top photo is not in any of the ten photos below.

6.4.4 Identifying Faces, Part II

Let’s first think about this experiment, and then think about what we predict the outcome to be.

Question 6.3

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
Correct! The researchers compared accuracy in identification between two groups: identification of the original person when his photo was present in the photo array and correct perception of when a photo of the original person was absent from the photo array.
Actually, the answer is C. The researchers compared accuracy in identification between two groups: identification of the original person when his photo was present in the photo array and correct perception of when a photo of the original person was absent from the photo array.

Question 6.4

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
Correct! The researchers assessed how accurate participants were in both conditions—photo of original person present and photo of original person absent.
Actually, the answer is B. The researchers assessed how accurate participants were in both conditions—photo of original person present and photo of original person absent.

6.4.5 Recognizing the Suspect, Part I

hockenbury_tls_ch6_eyewitness_testimony_1

In the study we’re discussing, participants didn’t even need to hold a face in their memory in order to identify a person later. They simply needed to look back and forth to figure out who the person is, which seems to be an easy task (Megreya & Burton, 2008). [] The researchers ran this easy identification part of the study to provide a baseline for eyewitness recognition. That is, if eyewitness memory is bad, what is the best we can hope for in terms of simply recognizing a suspect?

%

Question

jlWhMZpwEx08v2H7n3eIfJmWW8knn3eObt3nmfSdPTCx/qGSBJVAa8vBtYRECx032sAjA3PXckuwrvgVBAVe6o/qq345mgDaHq50dWqBVB8kBmjv7eJtZUSMBeAFXA3JUSf6KoQxwCEGpwvA+6RmeWejdg7yVdrFemEgtfuagR+xkVsdbKRvQO86q2e6IgiS/X3Juim655H1nuXSbcSsJRwnJhrqeiUWUy2B8SqPmxiH6mmDfHBgvgs/lhguLXGlJcKIoMbiqwdReuWy8EOUujcEkrM=

6.4.6 Recognizing the Suspect, Part II

hockenbury_tls_ch6_eyewitness_testimony_2

In the previous screen, you estimated that people would accurately match the target with the correct photo NO RESPONSE ENTERED of the time. In the actual study, even with this apparently simple task, participants were only a little over 66% accurate. Accuracy rates were similar in both conditions—when there was a matching photo below and when there was not. And even when researchers had the actual person stand there—live—alongside the ten photos, the accuracy rates were no better! As the researchers put it, “matching images of unfamiliar faces is a difficult task” (Megreya & Burton, 2008). So, rather than set a baseline against which the memory part of eyewitness identification could be judged, these researchers discovered a new problem: Simply encoding the face of the perpetrator isn’t easy!

This photo shows the face of a man and is used for an eyewitness memory test.
Megreya, Ahmed M.; Burton, A. Mike, Matching faces to photographs: Poor performance in eyewitness memory (without the memory). Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, Vol 14(4), 364-372, Dec 2008, APA reprinted with permission.

6.4.7 The Many Stages of Eyewitness Identification

Identifying a perpetrator is complicated. The first step is simply encoding the details of the person’s face and then picking out the same face in a different context. But as you now know, people get that right less than two-thirds of the time. So how accurate are people when there is a time lag in eyewitness memory or factors such as misinformation, which can alter even a correct memory? Psychology researchers have demonstrated overwhelmingly and convincingly that eyewitness identification is fraught with the potential for error. And DNA testing (pictured below) has confirmed these errors hundreds of times. However, the different types of psychology research suggest several alternative explanations for the problem of eyewitness misidentification. In the next section, we’ll talk about some of these alternative explanations.

A photo of DNA evidence.
Martin Shields/Science Source

6.5 Consider Alternative Explanations

3

Consider Alternative Explanations

6.5.1 Eyewitness Memory

There is a great deal of research that shows that eyewitness misidentification results from problems with memory (Loftus, 2013). But as you saw from the previous study, there are alternative explanations for why eyewitness misidentification occurs so often. One explanation is that people can have trouble encoding the details of faces in the first place. If people can’t encode the information, even when they are trying to, then how can anybody accurately identify a criminal after a time lapse?

But there’s another alternative explanation: It depends on how well the eyewitness is paying attention when the crime is being committed. Let’s return to the crime you witnessed earlier in the video. You looked at an array of ten photos of suspects, and you choseNo responsed entered.

This photo shows different male faces and is used for an eyewitness memory test.
BBC Worldwide America, Inc.

In the next screen, you’ll see how you did.

6.5.2 Whodunnit?

hockenbury_tls_ch6_eyewitness_testimony_3

[]

Remember, there was a group of volunteers in the pub watching the same fatal stabbing that you saw on the video. Let’s see how they did!

BBC Worldwide America, Inc.

So, none of the live witnesses picked the actual murderer! And only one of them even placed him in the pub at the time of the murder.

6.5.3 Misidentification

Were you surprised at how poorly people, as a group, tend to do at identifying a suspect? It’s likely that, overall, the students in your class are doing just as poorly as the volunteers in the pub. More than 100 introductory psychology students watched the same video you did, and just 10.2% of them chose the correct suspect—suspect number 1. That is exactly what would happen if they just guessed with their eyes closed! Yet, about 20% chose suspect 2 who wasn’t even in the pub at the time of the murder. And about another 20% chose suspect 8—the victim! Based on these results, the police might have arrested the wrong suspect. They couldn’t have targeted the dead victim (number 8), but they may have gone after suspect number 2. Why aren’t people much better than chance, or just guessing, when they identify a suspect that they saw briefly? We’ll explore that next.

This photo shows different male faces and is used for an eyewitness memory test.
BBC Worldwide America, Inc.

6.5.4 Why We Misidentify

Just by chance, about 10% of people doing this activity will be correct and the remaining 90% will be wrong. And that’s what we found with the introductory psychology students. Surprisingly, most people don’t do much better than chance at identifying the correct perpetrator. The majority of students who watch this video will likely misidentify the murderer, as did the introductory psychology students and most of the volunteers (who saw it live). What’s scary is that, in real life, this eyewitness evidence could be used to convict a suspect, even if he or she is innocent. Remember, in the video clip you watched earlier, two of the volunteers picked suspect 2 (as did about 20% of the introductory psychology students), and suspect 2 wasn’t even present at the crime!

Based on the discussion within this activity, which of the following are possible reasons for the misidentification? Click all that apply.

Question 6.5

6huFohHnI6aqmMKcVLljBNgorvk= Problems with memory

6huFohHnI6aqmMKcVLljBNgorvk= Problems encoding the face

6huFohHnI6aqmMKcVLljBNgorvk= Problems with paying attention

Actually, all of these are possible reasons for misidentification. When you think like a scientist, recognize that there are usually alternative explanations for human thinking and behavior. Often, you also have to recognize that more than one of these explanations can be true at the same time.
Yes, all of these are possible reasons for misidentification! When you think like a scientist, recognize that there are usually alternative explanations for human thinking and behavior. Often, you also have to recognize that more than one of these explanations can be true at the same time.

6.6 Consider the Source of the Research or Claim

4

Consider the Source of the Research or Claim

6.6.1 Science vs. Law

The case of eyewitness testimony offers an interesting contrast in sources. Remember the quote from William Brennan (pictured below)? “There is almost nothing more convincing [to a jury] than a live human being who takes the stand, points a finger at the defendant, and says 'That's the one!’” Turns out Brennan said that when making an argument that eyewitness testimony is problematic. In fact, he found eyewitness testimony problematic because it is so convincing, and people don’t realize its flaws. Unfortunately, Brennan is in the minority. For the most part, the legal system has prevented experts on eyewitness testimony from speaking about these problems at trial (Loftus, 2013). To figure out why, let’s examine the two sides—the law and the psychological science.

This is a photo of William Brennan who stated that “There is almost nothing more convincing [to a jury] than a live human being who takes the stand, points a finger at the defendant, and says 'That is the one!’“
Cynthia Johnson/The LIFE Images Collection/Getty Images

6.6.2 Psychological Science in the Courtroom

The most famous researcher of eyewitness testimony is Elizabeth Loftus (pictured below). She recently summarized the history of the relationship among psychology, law, and eyewitness testimony (Loftus, 2013). Before the 1980s, she notes, expert psychologists were barred from sharing research in the courtroom out of fear that it might interfere with the juries’ decisions. The legal system and the general public were skeptical of psychological science as a source. Eventually, several higher courts (including the Supreme Court) started reversing verdicts if an expert on eyewitness testimony was excluded from the trial. The arrival of DNA evidence bolstered these higher court decisions. Three-quarters of cases that have been overturned by new DNA evidence were originally based on eyewitness misidentification.

This is a photo of Elizabeth Loftus, a famous psychologist who conducts research on eyewitness evidence.
AP Photo/Don Shrubshell, Pool

6.6.3 Psychology and Law Now

chapter_6_dnd

Now, psychological research on eyewitness identification is mostly accepted by the court, but there are still misconceptions among the general public (Loftus, 2013). People continue to be convinced by one person pointing the finger at another. To help reduce eyewitness misidentification, the Innocence Project encourages techniques that psychological science has shown will reduce eyewitness misidentification before a jury hears any testimony in court (Loftus, 2013). The techniques are listed below. See if you can drag-and-drop each technique (in blue) to match it to its correct explanation.

The other “suspects” in a lineup or photo array should look similar to the actual suspect.
Eyewitnesses should be asked to state how confident they are in their identification of the suspect.
The eyewitness should be recorded—audiotape or videotape—when making any identification.
The police officers who conduct the lineup or show an array of photos to an eyewitness do not know who the suspect is.
The eyewitness should be told that the suspect may not be in the lineup or the photo array, and that the police will continue investigating even if the eyewitness does not select someone.
Blind identification procedures
Similar “fillers”
Instructions
Question about confidence
Recording

The law increasingly bases its eyewitness policies on psychological research. Hopefully, information from both sources will convince the general public that eyewitness misidentification is real, but its occurrence can be reduced by the techniques listed here.

6.7 Assessment

Assessment

6.7.1 Assessment

Question

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
The correct answer is A. Researchers have identified several potential causes of errors in eyewitness memory, but outright lying has not been one of them.

Question

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The correct answer is C. The research study found that people could accurately match photos only about 66% of the time, even though they could directly compare the original photo to the photo array.

Question

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The correct answer is B. The study showed that even when memory was not involved, the ability to perceive the details of an unfamiliar face is poor.

Question

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The correct answer is C. None of the participants in the original study correctly identified the murderer, and two actually identified the victim as the murderer.

Question

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The correct answer is B. Making sure that police officers are “blind” to the real suspect, telling witnesses that the suspect may not be in the lineup, and making sure that several people in the lineup are superficially similar to the suspect have all been shown to reduce error in eyewitness identification. A lie detector test would not, because in most cases, witnesses do not deliberately inaccurately identify suspects.