Shape an introduction. The opening of some projects must follow a template. Writing a story for a newspaper, you begin by providing essential facts, identifying who, what, where, and when. You’ll also follow conventions with technical materials (lab reports, research articles, scholarly essays). To get such introductions right, study models of these genres and then imitate their structures.

When not constrained by a template, you have many options for an opening, the most straightforward being simply to announce your project. This blunt approach is common in academic papers where it makes sense to identify a subject and preview your plan for developing it. Quite often, the introductory material leads directly into a thesis or a hypothesis, as in the following student paper:

In her novel Wuthering Heights (1847), Emily Brontë presents the story of the families of Wuthering Heights and Thrushcross Grange through the seemingly impartial perspective of Nelly Dean, a servant who grows up with the families. Upon closer inspection, however, it becomes apparent that Nelly acts as much more than a bystander in the tragic events taking place around her. In her status as an outsider with influence over the families, Nelly strikingly resembles the Byronic hero Heathcliff and competes with him for power. Although the author depicts Heathcliff as the more overt gothic hero, Brontë allows the reader to infer from Nelly’s story her true character and role in the family. The author draws a parallel between Nelly Dean and Heathcliff in their relationships to the Earnshaw family, in their similar roles as tortured heroes, and in their competition for power within their adoptive families.

— Manasi Deshpande, “Servant and Stranger: Nelly and Heathcliff in Wuthering Heights”

Paper opens by identifying its general topic or theme.

Detailed thesis states what paper will prove.

Reports and arguments may open more slowly, using an introductory section that helps readers appreciate why an issue deserves attention. You might, for example, present an anecdote, describe a trend, or point to some phenomenon readers may not have noticed. Then you can thrash out its significance or implications.

Opening paragraphs can also deliver necessary background information. The trick is always to decide what exactly readers need to know about a subject. Provide too little background information on a subject and readers may find the project confusing. Supply too much context and you lose fans quickly.

And yet, even when readers know a subject well, be sure to supply basic facts about the project. Name names in your introduction, provide accurate titles for works you are discussing, furnish dates, and explain what exactly your subject is. Imagine readers from just slightly outside your target audience who might not instantly recall, for instance, that it was Shakespeare who wrote a play titled Henry V or that Edwin “Buzz” Aldrin was the second person to walk on the surface of the moon. Don’t leave readers guessing. But it’s fair game to intrigue them.

So give them reasons to enter your text. Invite them with a compelling incident or provocative story, with a recitation of surprising or intriguing facts, with a dramatic question, with a memorable description or quotation. Naturally, any opening has to be in sync with the material that follows — not outrageously emotional if the argument is sober, not lighthearted and comic if the paper has a serious theme.

Typically, readers use an introduction to determine whether they belong to the audience of the piece. A paper that opens with highly technical language says “specialists only,” while a more personal or colloquial style welcomes a broader group. Readers are also making judgments about you in those opening lines, so you can’t afford errors of fact or even grammar and usage there. Such slips-ups cloud their impression of all that follows.

One last bit of advice: Don’t write an introduction until you’re ready. The opening of a project can be notoriously difficult to frame because it does so much work. If you are blocked at the beginning of a project, plunge directly into the body of the paper and see what happens. You can even write the opening section last, after you know precisely where the paper goes. No one will know.

Draw a conclusion. Like introductions, conclusions serve different purposes and audiences. An e-mail to a professor may need no more of a sign-off than a signature, while a senior thesis could require a whole chapter to wrap things up. In reports and arguments, you typically use the concluding section to summarize what you’ve covered and draw out the implications. The following is the no-nonsense conclusion of a college report on a childhood developmental disorder, cri du chat syndrome (CDCS). Note that this summary paragraph also leads where many other scientific and scholarly articles do: to a call for additional research.

Though research on CDCS remains far from abundant, existing studies prescribe early and ongoing intervention by a team of specialists, including speech-language pathologists, physical and occupational therapists, various medical and educational professionals, and parents. Such intervention has been shown to allow individuals with CDCS to live happy, long, and full lives. The research, however, indicates that the syndrome affects all aspects of a child’s development and should therefore be taken quite seriously. Most children require numerous medical interventions, including surgery (especially to correct heart defects), feeding tubes, body braces, and repeated treatment of infections. Currently, the best attempts are being made to help young children with CDCS reach developmental milestones earlier, communicate effectively, and function as independently as possible. However, as the authors of the aforementioned studies suggest, much more research is needed to clarify the causes of varying degrees of disability, to identify effective and innovative treatments/interventions (especially in the area of education), and to individualize intervention plans.

— Marissa Dahlstrom, “Developmental Disorders: Cri du Chat Syndrome”

Major point

Major point

Conclusion ties together main points made in paper, using transitional words and phrases.

On other occasions, you will want to finish dramatically and memorably, especially in arguments and personal narratives that seek to influence readers and change opinions. Since final paragraphs are what readers remember, it makes sense to use powerful language. Here’s the conclusion of a lengthy personal essay by Shane McNamee on gay marriage that leads up to a poignant political appeal.

Forget for the moment the rainbow flags and pink triangles. Gay pride is not about being homosexual; it’s about the integrity and courage it takes to be honest with yourself and your loved ones. It’s about spending life with whomever you want and not worrying what the government or the neighbors think. Let’s protect that truth, not some rigid view of sexual orientation or marriage. Keep gay marriage out of your church if you like, but if you value monogamy as I do, give me an alternative that doesn’t involve dishonesty or a life of loneliness. Many upstanding gay citizens yearn for recognition of their loving, committed relationships. Unless you enjoy being lied to and are ready to send your gay friends and family on a Trail of Queers to a state where gay marriage is legal then consider letting them live as they wish.

— “Protecting What Really Matters”

Deliberate repetition focuses readers on serious point.

Conclusion makes direct appeal to readers, addressed as you.

Final sentence appeals emotionally through both images and language.