| 1850s–1860s | Positivism, Darwinism become influential |
| 1850s–1870s | Realism in the arts |
| 1853–1856 | Crimean War |
| 1857 | British-led forces suppress Indian Rebellion |
| 1861 | Victor Emmanuel declared king of a unified Italy; abolition of serfdom in Russia |
| 1861–1865 | U.S. Civil War |
| 1867 | Second Reform Bill in England; Austro-Hungarian monarchy |
| 1868 | Meiji Restoration begins in Japan |
| 1869 | Suez Canal opens |
| 1869–1871 | Women's colleges are founded at Cambridge University |
| 1870–1871 | Franco-Prussian War |
| 1871 | German Empire is proclaimed at Versailles; self-governing Paris Commune is established |