The Politics of Control

The quest for order, control, and harmony also became part of the political agendas of princes, popes, and cities. These rulers and institutions imposed—or tried to impose—their authority ever more fully and systematically through taxes, courts, and sometimes representative institutions. Vestiges of these systems live on in modern European parliaments and in the U.S. Congress.

Louis IX of France is a good example of a ruler whose power increased during this period. In contrast, the emperor had to give up Italy and most of his power in Germany. At first powerful, the papacy was later forced to move from Rome to Avignon, a real blow to its prestige. In Italy the rise of signori (lords) meant that the communes, which had long governed many cities, gave way to rule by one strong man.

A new political entity, the Mongols, directly confronted the rulers of Russia, Poland, and Hungary even as they opened up new trade routes to the East. But just as this was taking place, a series of calamities known as the Great Famine hit Europe.