communication apprehension: The fear or nervousness associated with communicating with others.

communication plans: Mental maps that describe exactly how communication encounters will unfold. For example, before calling to complain about her telephone bill, Marjorie mentally rehearses how she will explain her problem and what objections she might face.

connotative meaning: Understanding of a word’s meaning based on the situation and the shared knowledge between communication partners (i.e., not the dictionary definition). For instance, calling someone slender suggests something more positive than the word skinny or scrawny does, though all three words mean “underweight.” Contrast denotative meaning.

constitutive rules: Guidelines that define word meaning according to a particular language’s vocabulary. For instance, “pencil” is Bleistift in German and matita in Italian.

Cooperative Principle: The idea that we should make our verbal messages as informative, honest, relevant, and clear as possible, given what the situation requires. For example, listening closely to your friend’s problem with a coworker and then responding with support would demonstrate the Cooperative Principle; interrupting your friend to brag about your new laptop would not.

cooperative verbal communication: Producing messages that are easily understood, that you take ownership of by using “I” language, and that are inclusive of others (perhaps by using “we” language).

deception: Deliberately using uninformative, untruthful, irrelevant, or vague language for the purpose of misleading others.

defensive communication: Impolite messages delivered in response to suggestions, criticism, or perceived slights. For instance, when Stacy asks Lena to slow down her driving, Lena snaps back, “I’m not going that fast. If you don’t like the way I drive, ride with someone else.”

denotative meaning: The literal, or dictionary, definition of a word. Contrast connotative meaning.

dialects: Variations on language rules shared by large groups or particular regions; this may include differences in vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation. For example, in various regions of the United States, carbonated beverages are called soda, pop, or Coke.

high-context cultures: Societies that rely upon extensive common knowledge, rather than merely words, to convey meaning. For example, if a customer attempted to purchase tickets for a sold-out performance in Tokyo, the ticket seller might say, “Sorry, very difficult,” presuming the customer would understand the remark to mean, “I am embarrassed that I cannot provide you with what you wish.” Contrast with low-context cultures.

honesty: Truthful communication, without exaggeration or omission of relevant information. Failing to tell someone something can be as dishonest as an outright lie.

“I” language: Communication that uses the pronoun I in sentence construction to emphasize ownership of your feelings, opinions, and beliefs—for example, “I’m frustrated because I think I’m doing more than you are on this project” instead of, “You’re really underperforming on this project.” See also “we” language; “you” language.

linguistic determinism: The view that the language we use defines the boundaries of our thinking.

linguistic relativity: The theory that languages create variations in the ways cultures perceive and think about the world.

low-context cultures: Societies that rely on words to convey meaning, resulting in direct verbal communication. In the United States, for example, we prefer clarity over vague hints. Contrast high-context cultures.

misunderstanding: Confusion resulting from the misperception of another’s thoughts, feelings, or beliefs as expressed in the other individual’s verbal communication.

naming: Creating linguistic symbols to represent people, objects, places, and ideas.

personal idioms: Words and phrases that have unique meanings to a particular relationship, such as pet names or private phrases with special meaning. For example, Uncle Henry was known for his practical jokes; now, years after his death, family members still refer to a practical joke as “pulling a Henry.”

regulative rules: Guidelines that govern how we use language when we verbally communicate—that is, spelling and grammar as well as conversational usage. For example, we know how to respond correctly to a greeting, and we know that cursing in public is inappropriate.

speech acts: The actions we perform with language, such as the question, “Is the antique clock in your window for sale?” and the reply, “Yes, let me get it out to show you.”

symbols: Items used to represent other things, ideas, or events. For example, the letters of the alphabet are symbols for specific sounds in English.

verbal aggression: The tendency to attack others’ self-concepts—their appearance, behavior, or character—rather than their positions.

verbal communication: The exchange of spoken or written language with others during interactions.

“we” language: Communication that uses the pronoun we to emphasize inclusion—for example, “We need to decide what color to paint the living room” instead of “I need you to tell me what color paint you want for the living room.” See also “I” language; “you” language.

“you” language: Communication that states or implies the pronoun you to place the focus of attention and blaming others—such as, “You haven’t done your share of the work on this project.” See also “I” language; “we” language.