1.3 Contents

Preface xx

Section 1

Basic Economic Concepts 1

Any Given Sunday1

Module 1 The Study of Economics 2

Individual Choice: The Core of Economics 2

    Resources Are Scarce 3

    Opportunity Cost: The Real Cost of Something Is What You Must Give Up to Get It 4

Microeconomics versus Macroeconomics 4

    Macroeconomics: Theory and Policy 5

ECONOMICS IN ACTION: Fending Off Depression 6

The Use of Models in Economics 6

Positive versus Normative Economics 7

    When and Why Economists Disagree 8

Module 1 Review 9

Module 2 The Production Possibility Frontier Model 11

Trade-offs: The Production Possibility Frontier 11

    Efficiency 13

    Opportunity Cost 14

    Economic Growth 15

Module 2 Review 16

Module 3 Comparative Advantage and Trade 18

Gains from Trade 18

Comparative Advantage and Gains from Trade 19

ECONOMICS IN ACTION: Rich Nation, Poor Nation 22

    Comparative Advantage and International Trade, in Reality 23

    Sources of Comparative Advantage 23

Module 3 Review 24

BUSINESS CASE: Efficiency, Opportunity Cost, and the Logic of Lean Production at Boeing 26

Section 1 Review 27

Section 2

Supply and Demand 31

Blue Jean Blues31

Module 4 Demand 32

Supply and Demand: A Model of a Competitive Market 32

The Demand Curve 33

    The Demand Schedule and the Demand Curve 33

    Shifts of the Demand Curve 34

    Understanding Shifts of the Demand Curve 36

ECONOMICS IN ACTION: Beating the Traffic 41

Module 4 Review 41

Module 5 Supply and Equilibrium 43

The Supply Curve 43

    The Supply Schedule and the Supply Curve 43

    Shifts of the Supply Curve 44

    Understanding Shifts of the Supply Curve 46

ECONOMICS IN ACTION: Only Creatures Small and Pampered 50

Supply, Demand, and Equilibrium 50

    Finding the Equilibrium Price and Quantity 51

    Why Do All Sales and Purchases in a Market Take Place at the Same Price? 52

    Why Does the Market Price Fall If It Is Above the Equilibrium Price? 52

    Why Does the Market Price Rise If It Is Below the Equilibrium Price? 52

    Using Equilibrium to Describe Markets 52

Module 5 Review 54

Module 6 Changes in Equilibrium 56

Changes in Supply and Demand 56

    What Happens When the Demand Curve Shifts 56

    What Happens When the Supply Curve Shifts 57

    Simultaneous Shifts of Supply and Demand Curves 58

ECONOMICS IN ACTION: The Rice Run of 2008 60

Module 6 Review 60

Module 7 Price Controls and Quantity Controls 63

Why Governments Control Prices and Quantities 63

    Price Ceilings 63

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    How a Price Ceiling Causes Inefficiency 64

    So Why Are There Price Ceilings? 66

Price Floors 67

ECONOMICS IN ACTION: Price Floors and School Lunches 68

    How a Price Floor Causes Inefficiency 69

    So Why Are There Price Floors? 70

Quantity Controls 70

    The Costs of Quantity Controls 73

ECONOMICS IN ACTION: The Clams of the Jersey Shore 74

Module 7 Review 74

Module 8 International Trade 77

International Trade and Globalization 77

Supply, Demand, and International Trade 78

    The Effects of Imports 78

    The Effects of Exports 80

    International Trade and Wages 80

ECONOMICS IN ACTION: Skill and Comparative Advantage 82

The Effects of Trade Protection 82

    The Effects of a Tariff 83

    The Effects of an Import Quota 84

Challenges to Globalization 84

Module 8 Review 85

BUSINESS CASE: Li & Fung: From Guangzhou to You 87

Section 2 Review 88

Section 3

Macroeconomic Measurement 95

The New #295

Module 9 Introduction to Macroeconomics 96

The Business Cycle 97

    The Pain of Recession 97

ECONOMICS IN ACTION: Defining Recessions and Expansions 98

    Taming the Business Cycle 99

ECONOMICS IN ACTION: Comparing Recessions 99

Long-Run Economic Growth 100

Inflation and Deflation 101

International Imbalances 102

Module 9 Review 104

Module 10 The Circular-Flow Diagram and the National Accounts 105

The National Accounts 105

The Circular-Flow Diagram 106

    The Simple Circular-Flow Diagram 106

    The Expanded Circular-Flow Diagram 107

ECONOMICS IN ACTION: Creating the National Accounts 109

Module 10 Review 110

Module 11 Gross Domestic Product (GDP) 111

Gross Domestic Product Defined 111

    Calculating GDP 111

The Components of GDP 114

    GDP: What’s In and What’s Out? 115

ECONOMICS IN ACTION: Our Imputed Lives 116

Module 11 Review 116

Module 12 Interpreting Real Gross Domestic Product 118

What GDP Tells Us 118

Real GDP: A Measure of Aggregate Output 118

    Calculating Real GDP 119

ECONOMICS IN ACTION: Miracle in Venezuela? 120

    What Real GDP Doesn’t Measure 120

ECONOMICS IN ACTION: GDP and the Meaning of Life 121

Module 12 Review 122

BUSINESS CASE: Getting a Jump on GDP 124

Section 3 Review 125

Section 4

Unemployment and Inflation 131

A Very British Dilemma131

Module 13 Defining Unemployment 132

The Unemployment Rate 132

    Defining and Measuring Unemployment 132

    The Significance of the Unemployment Rate 133

    Growth and Unemployment 135

ECONOMICS IN ACTION: Failure to Launch 137

Module 13 Review 138

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Module 14 Categories of Unemployment 140

Job Creation and Job Destruction 140

    Frictional Unemployment 141

    Structural Unemployment 142

The Natural Rate of Unemployment 145

    Changes in the Natural Rate of Unemployment 145

ECONOMICS IN ACTION: Natural Unemployment Around the OECD 147

Module 14 Review 148

Module 15 The Costs of Inflation 149

The Inflation Rate 149

    The Level of Prices Doesn’t Matter … 149

    … But the Rate of Change of Prices Does 150

The Economic Costs of High Inflation 151

ECONOMICS IN ACTION: Israel’s Experience with Inflation 151

Winners and Losers from Inflation 153

Inflation is Easy; Disinflation is Hard 154

Module 15 Review 155

Module 16 Measuring Inflation 157

The Aggregate Price Level 157

    Market Baskets and Price Indexes 157

    The Consumer Price Index 159

    Other Price Measures 160

ECONOMICS IN ACTION: Indexing to the CPI 161

Module 16 Review 162

BUSINESS CASE: A Monster Slump 164

Section 4 Review 165

Section 5

Long-Run Economic Growth 171

Tall Tales171

Module 17 Sources of Long-Run Economic Growth 172

Comparing Economies Across Time and Space 172

    Real GDP per Capita 172

    Growth Rates 174

ECONOMICS IN ACTION: India Takes Off 175

What Are the Sources of Long-Run Growth? 176

    The Crucial Importance of Productivity 176

    Explaining Growth in Productivity 176

Module 17 Review 177

Module 18 Productivity and Growth 179

The Aggregate Production Function 179

    Growth Accounting 181

ECONOMICS IN ACTION: The Information Technology Paradox 182

    What About Natural Resources? 183

Is World Growth Sustainable? 184

    Economic Growth and the Environment 185

Module 18 Review 187

Module 19 Long-Run Growth Policy 189

Why Growth Rates Differ 189

    Explaining Differences in Growth Rates 189

    The Role of Government in Promoting Economic Growth 191

ECONOMICS IN ACTION: The Brazilian Breadbasket 193

Success, Disappointment, and Failure 193

    East Asia’s Miracle 194

    Latin America’s Disappointment 195

    Africa’s Troubles and Promise 195

ECONOMICS IN ACTION: Are Economies Converging?196

Module 19 Review 198

BUSINESS CASE: Big Box Boom 199

Section 5 Review 200

Section 6

Savings, Investment Spending, and the Financial System 205

Funds for Facebook205

Module 20 Savings and Investment Spending 206

Matching Up Savings and Investment Spending 206

    The Savings–Investment Spending Identity 206

ECONOMICS IN ACTION: America’s Low Savings 210

Module 20 Review 211

Module 21 The Market for Loanable Funds 212

The Role of the Loanable Funds Market 212

    The Demand for Loanable Funds 213

    The Supply of Loanable Funds 214

The Equilibrium Interest Rate 215

    Shifts of the Demand for Loanable Funds 216

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    Shifts of the Supply of Loanable Funds 217

    Inflation and Interest Rates 218

ECONOMICS IN ACTION: Fifty Years of Fluctuations in U.S. Interest Rates 219

Module 21 Review 220

Module 22 The Time Value of Money 222

The Concept of Present Value 222

    Borrowing, Lending, and Interest 223

    Defining Present Value 223

Using Present Value 225

ECONOMICS IN ACTION: How Big Is That Jackpot, Anyway? 226

Module 22 Review 227

Module 23 The Financial System 228

Understanding the Financial System 228

    Three Tasks of a Financial System 229

    Types of Financial Assets 230

    Financial Intermediaries 232

Financial Fluctuations and Macroeconomic Policy 234

ECONOMICS IN ACTION: The Great American Housing Bubble 235

Module 23 Review 236

Section 6 Review 237

Section 7

Income and Expenditure 241

From Boom to Bust241

Module 24 The Multiplier 242

The Multiplier: An Informal Introduction 242

ECONOMICS IN ACTION: The Multiplier and the Great Depression 245

Module 24 Review 245

Module 25 Consumption and Investment Spending 247

Consumer Spending 247

    Current Disposable Income and Consumer Spending 247

    Shifts of the Aggregate Consumption Function 251

Investment Spending 252

    The Interest Rate and Investment Spending 253

    Expected Future Real GDP, Production Capacity, and Investment Spending 253

    Inventories and Unplanned Investment Spending 254

ECONOMICS IN ACTION: Interest Rates and the U.S.

    Housing Boom 255

Module 25 Review 256

Module 26 The Income–Expenditure Model 258

Using the Income–Expenditure Model 258

    Planned Aggregate Spending and Real GDP 259

    Income–Expenditure Equilibrium 260

    The Multiplier Process and Inventory Adjustment 262

ECONOMICS IN ACTION: Inventories and the End of a Recession 265

Module 26 Review 266

BUSINESS CASE: Making It Through in Muskegon 267

Section 7 Review 268

Section 8

Aggregate Demand and Aggregate Supply 273

Shocks to the System273

Module 27 Aggregate Demand 274

The Aggregate Demand Curve 274

    Why Is the Aggregate Demand Curve Downward Sloping? 275

    The Aggregate Demand Curve and the Income–Expenditure Model 276

    Shifts of the Aggregate Demand Curve 278

ECONOMICS IN ACTION: Moving Along the Aggregate Demand Curve, 1979–1980 282

Module 27 Review 282

Module 28 Aggregate Supply 284

The Aggregate Supply Curve 284

    The Short-Run Aggregate Supply Curve 284

    Shifts of the Short-Run Aggregate Supply Curve 287

    The Long-Run Aggregate Supply Curve 289

    From the Short Run to the Long Run 292

ECONOMICS IN ACTION: Prices and Output During the Great Depression 293

Module 28 Review 294

Module 29 The AD–AS Model 296

Putting the Aggregate Supply Curve and the Aggregate Demand Curve Together 296

xvi

    Short-Run Macroeconomic Equilibrium 296

    Shifts of Aggregate Demand: Short-Run Effects 297

    Shifts of the SRAS Curve 298

    Long-Run Macroeconomic Equilibrium 300

ECONOMICS IN ACTION: Supply Shocks versus Demand Shocks in Practice 303

Macroeconomic Policy 303

    Policy in the Face of Demand Shocks 304

    Responding to Supply Shocks 304

Module 29 Review 305

BUSINESS CASE: United in Pain 307

Section 8 Review 308

Section 9

Fiscal Policy 313

To Stimulate or Not to Stimulate?313

Module 30 Fiscal Policy Basics 314

What Is Fiscal Policy? 314

    Taxes, Purchases of Goods and Services, Government Transfers, and Borrowing 315

    The Government Budget and Total Spending 316

    Expansionary and Contractionary Fiscal Policy 317

    Can Expansionary Fiscal Policy Actually Work? 318

    A Cautionary Note: Lags in Fiscal Policy 320

ECONOMICS IN ACTION: What Was in the Recovery Act? 321

Module 30 Review 321

Module 31 Fiscal Policy and the Multiplier 323

Multiplier Effects of Fiscal Policy 323

    Multiplier Effects of an Increase in Government Purchases of Goods and Services 323

    Multiplier Effects of Changes in Government Transfers and Taxes 324

    How Taxes Affect the Multiplier 325

ECONOMICS IN ACTION: Multipliers and the Obama Stimulus 326

Module 31 Review 327

Module 32 Budget Deficits and Public Debt 328

The Budget Balance 328

    The Budget Balance as a Measure of Fiscal Policy 328

    The Business Cycle and the Cyclically Adjusted Budget Balance 329

    Should the Budget Be Balanced? 331

ECONOMICS IN ACTION: Europe’s Search for a Fiscal Rule 332

Long-Run Implications of Fiscal Policy 332

    Deficits, Surpluses, and Debt 333

    Problems Posed by Rising Government Debt 334

    Deficits and Debt in Practice 335

    Implicit Liabilities 336

Module 32 Review 337

BUSINESS CASE: Priming the Pumps 339

Section 9 Review 340

Section 10

Money, Banking, and the Federal Reserve System 345

Funny Money345

Module 33 Defining and Measuring Money 346

The Meaning of Money 346

    What is Money? 346

    Roles of Money 347

    Types of Money 348

ECONOMICS IN ACTION: The History of the Dollar 349

Measuring the Money Supply 350

Module 33 Review 351

Module 34 Banking and Money Creation 353

The Monetary Role of Banks 353

    What Banks Do 353

    The Problem of Bank Runs 354

ECONOMICS IN ACTION: It’s a Wonderful Banking System 355

    Bank Regulation 356

Determining the Money Supply 356

    How Banks Create Money 357

    Reserves, Bank Deposits, and the Money Multiplier 358

    The Money Multiplier in Reality 359

Module 34 Review 361

Module 35 The Federal Reserve System 362

The Structure of the Fed 362

The Evolution of the American Banking System 363

xvii

    The Crisis in American Banking at the Turn of the Twentieth Century 364

    Responding to Banking Crises: The Creation of the Federal Reserve 365

    The Savings and Loan Crisis of the 1980s 366

    Back to the Future: The Financial Crisis of 2008 366

ECONOMICS IN ACTION: Regulation After the 2008 Crisis 369

Module 35 Review 370

BUSINESS CASE: The Perfect Gift: Cash or a Gift Card? 371

Section 10 Review 372

Section 11

Monetary Policy 377

Person of the Year377

Module 36 The Federal Reserve and Monetary Policy 378

Functions of the Federal Reserve System 378

How the Fed Conducts Policy 379

    The Reserve Requirement 379

    The Discount Rate 379

    Open-Market Operations 380

ECONOMICS IN ACTION: Who Gets Interest on the Fed’s Assets? 381

Module 36 Review 382

Module 37 The Money Market 383

The Demand for Money 383

    The Opportunity Cost of Holding Money 383

    The Money Demand Curve 385

    Shifts of the Money Demand Curve 386

ECONOMICS IN ACTION: A Yen for Cash 388

Money and Interest Rates 388

    The Equilibrium Interest Rate 388

    Two Models of Interest Rates? 390

Module 37 Review 390

Module 38 Monetary Policy and the Interest Rate 392

The Fed, the Money Supply, and the Interest Rate 392

    Long-Term Interest Rates 394

ECONOMICS IN ACTION: The Fed Reverses Course 395

Monetary Policy and Aggregate Demand 395

    Expansionary and Contractionary Monetary Policy 395

    Monetary Policy in Practice 396

    The Taylor Rule Method of Setting Monetary Policy 397

    Inflation Targeting 398

    The Zero Lower Bound Problem 399

ECONOMICS IN ACTION: What the Fed Wants, the Fed Gets 399

Module 38 Review 400

Module 39 Money, Output, and Prices in the Long Run 402

Money, Output, and Prices 402

    Short-Run and Long-Run Effects of an Increase in the Money Supply 403

    Monetary Neutrality 404

    Changes in the Money Supply and the Interest Rate in the Long Run 405

ECONOMICS IN ACTION: International Evidence of Monetary Neutrality 406

Module 39 Review 406

BUSINESS CASE: PIMCO Bets on Cheap Money 408

Section 11 Review 409

Section 12

Policy Responses to Unemployment and Inflation 413

Bringing a Suitcase to the Bank413

Module 40 Inflation, Disinflation, and Deflation 414

Money and Inflation 414

    The Classical Model of Money and Prices 414

    The Inflation Tax 416

    The Logic of Hyperinflation 418

ECONOMICS IN ACTION: What Caused Zimbabwe’s Inflation? 419

Moderate Inflation and Disinflation 419

    The Output Gap and the Unemployment Rate 420

Module 40 Review 422

Module 41 The Phillips Curve 423

Inflation and Unemployment in the Short Run 423

    The Short-Run Phillips Curve 423

    Inflation Expectations and the Short-Run Phillips Curve 424

Inflation and Unemployment in the Long Run 426

    The Long-Run Phillips Curve 426

    The Natural Rate of Unemployment, Revisited 428

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ECONOMICS IN ACTION: The Great Disinflation of the 1980s 428

    The Costs of Disinflation 429

Deflation 429

    Debt Deflation 430

    Effects of Expected Deflation 430

ECONOMICS IN ACTION: The Deflation Scare of 2010 432

Module 41 Review 433

Module 42 Crises and Consequences 435

Banking: Benefits and Dangers 435

    The Purpose of Banking 435

    Shadow Banks and the Re-emergence of Bank Runs 436

Banking Crises and Financial Panics 436

ECONOMICS IN ACTION: Lights Out at Lehman 438

The Consequences of Banking Crises 439

    Banking Crises, Recessions, and Recovery 439

    Why Are Banking-Crisis Recessions So Bad? 440

    Governments Step In 441

The 2008 Crisis and Its Aftermath 443

    Severe Crisis, Slow Recovery 444

    Aftershocks in Europe 444

    The Stimulus–Austerity Debate 444

    The Lesson of the Post-Crisis Slump 445

    Regulation in the Wake of the Crisis 445

Module 42 Review 447

BUSINESS CASE: Licenses to Print Money 448

Section 12 Review 449

Section 13

Open-Economy Macroeconomics 453

Switzerland Doesn’t Want Your Money453

Module 43 Capital Flows and the Balance of Payments 454

The Balance of Payments Accounts 454

    Understanding the Balance of Payments 454

ECONOMICS IN ACTION: GDP, GNP, and the Current Account 458

Modeling the Financial Account 459

    Underlying Determinants of International Capital Flows 461

    Two-way Capital Flows 462

Module 43 Review 462

Module 44 The Foreign Exchange Market 464

The Role of the Exchange Rate 464

    Understanding Exchange Rates 464

    The Equilibrium Exchange Rate 465

    Inflation and Real Exchange Rates 468

    Purchasing Power Parity 470

ECONOMICS IN ACTION: Burgernomics 471

Module 44 Review 471

Module 45 Exchange Rate Policy 473

Exchange Rate Regimes 473

    Fixed and Floating Exchange Rates 473

    How Can an Exchange Rate Be Held Fixed? 474

    The Exchange Rate Regime Dilemma 475

ECONOMICS IN ACTION: China Pegs the Yuan 476

Module 45 Review 477

Module 46 Exchange Rates and Macroeconomic Policy 479

Devaluation and Revaluation of Fixed Exchange Rates 480

ECONOMICS IN ACTION: From Bretton Woods to the Euro 480

Monetary Policy Under a Floating Exchange Rate Regime 481

International Business Cycles 482

Module 46 Review 483

BUSINESS CASE: War of the Earthmovers 484

Section 13 Review 485

Section 14

Macroeconomics: Events and Ideas 489

A Tale of Two Slumps489

Module 47 History and Alternative Views of Macroeconomics 490

Classical Macroeconomics 490

    Money and the Price Level 490

    The Business Cycle 490

The Great Depression and the Keynesian Revolution 491

    Keynes’s Theory 491

    Policy to Fight Recessions 493

ECONOMICS IN ACTION: The End of the Great Depression 493

xix

Challenges to Keynesian Economics 494

    The Revival of Monetary Policy 494

    Monetarism 494

    Inflation and the Natural Rate of Unemployment 497

    The Political Business Cycle 497

Rational Expectations, Real Business Cycles, and New Classical Macroeconomics 498

    Rational Expectations 498

    Real Business Cycles 499

Module 47 Review 500

Module 48 The Modern Macroeconomic Consensus 502

Consensus and Conflict in Modern Macroeconomics 502

    Question 1: Is Expansionary Monetary Policy Helpful in Fighting Recessions? 503

    Question 2: Is Expansionary Fiscal Policy Helpful in Fighting Recessions? 503

    Question 3: Can Monetary and/or Fiscal Policy Reduce Unemployment in the Long Run? 503

    Question 4: Should Fiscal Policy Be Used in a Discretionary Way? 504

    Question 5: Should Monetary Policy Be Used in a Discretionary Way? 504

Crisis and Aftermath 504

    The Debate over Fiscal Policy 505

    The Debate over Monetary Policy 505

ECONOMICS IN ACTION: An Irish Role Model? 506

Module 48 Review 508

Section 14 Review 509

Appendix A

Graphs in Economics A-1

Appendix B

Macroeconomic Data B-1

Solutions to Module Review Questions S-1

Glossary G-1

Index I-1

xx