Augustus claimed that he was restoring the republic, but he actually transformed the government into one in which all real power was held by a single ruler. As he did this, however, he maintained the illusion that the republic still existed.

Augustus fit his own position into the republican constitution not by creating a new office for himself but by gradually taking over many of the offices that traditionally had been held by separate people. The Senate named him often as both consul and tribune. He was also named imperator, a title with which the Senate customarily honored a general after a major victory. He held control of the army, which he made a permanent standing organization. Recognizing the importance of religion, he had himself named pontifex maximus, or chief priest.

An additional title that Augustus had the Senate bestow on him was princeps civitatis (prihn-KEHPS cih-vee-TAH-tees), “first citizen of the state.” This title had no official powers attached to it and had been used as an honorific for centuries, so it was inoffensive to Roman ears. The government he created is called the principate. One of Augustus’s cleverest tactics was to use noninflammatory language for himself and the changes he was making. After what had happened to Julius Caesar, Augustus wisely wielded all his power in the background.

Augustus curtailed the power of the Senate, but it continued to exist as the chief deliberative body of the state, and it continued to act as a court of law. Under Augustus and his successors, it provided officials to administer Rome and its provinces. The Senate’s relations with particular emperors were often hostile. In general, however, the Senate adapted itself to the new reality and cooperated in running the empire. Governors sent to the provinces were often members of the Senate, and they took the Roman legal system with them.

Without specifically saying so, Augustus created the office of emperor. The English word emperor is derived from the Latin word imperator, an origin that reflects the fact that Augustus’s command of the army was the main source of his power. Augustus never shared control of the army, and no Roman found it easy to defy him militarily. To solidify his hold on the army and make a more effective fighting force, Augustus professionalized the military even more than it had been in the late republic, and the army became a recognized institution of government.

Grants of land to veterans had originally been in Italy, but by Augustus’s time there was not enough land for this. Instead he gave veterans land in the frontier provinces that had been taken from the people the Romans conquered. These colonies of veterans played an important role in securing the Roman Empire’s boundaries and controlling its newly won provinces. Augustus’s veterans took abroad with them their Latin language and Roman culture, becoming important agents of Romanization.