In the later years of Henry’s reign, his sons fought against their father and one another for power and land. Richard I, known as the Lion-Hearted (r. 1189–1199), won this civil war and acceded to the throne on Henry’s death. Soon after, however, he departed on one of the Crusades. Richard was captured on his way back from the Crusades and held by the Holy Roman emperor for a very high ransom, paid primarily through loans and high taxes on the English people.

John (r. 1199–1216) inherited his father’s and brother’s heavy debts, and his efforts to squeeze money out of his subjects created an atmosphere of resentment. In July 1214, John suffered a severe defeat at the hands of Philip Augustus of France, strengthening the opposition to John back in England. A rebellion begun by northern barons eventually grew to involve many key members of the English nobility. After lengthy negotiations, John met the barons in 1215 at Runnymede and was forced to approve the charter of rights later called Magna Carta.

The charter was simply meant to assert traditional rights enjoyed by certain groups and thus state limits on the king’s power. In time, however, it came to signify the broader principle that everyone, including the king and the government, must obey the law. The Magna Carta also contains the germ of the idea of “due process of law,” meaning that a person has the right to be heard and defended in court and is entitled to the protection of the law.