The Restoration of 1660 brought to the throne Charles II (r. 1660–1685). Both houses of Parliament were also restored, together with the established Anglican Church. The Restoration failed to resolve two serious problems, however. What was to be the attitude of the state toward Puritans, Catholics, and dissenters from the established church? And what was to be the relationship between the king and Parliament?

To answer the first question, Parliament enacted the Test Act of 1673 against those outside the Church of England, denying them the right to vote, hold public office, preach, teach, attend the universities, or even assemble for meetings. But these restrictions could not be enforced.

In politics, Charles II’s initial determination to work well with Parliament did not last long. Finding that Parliament did not grant him an adequate income, Charles entered into a secret agreement with his cousin Louis XIV in 1670. The French king would give Charles £200,000 annually, and in return Charles would relax the laws against Catholics, gradually re-Catholicize England, and convert to Catholicism himself. When the details of this treaty leaked out, a great wave of anti-Catholic sentiment swept England.

When Charles died and his Catholic brother James became king, the worst English anti-Catholic fears were realized. As king, James II (r. 1685–1688) was an active promoter of Catholicism and made no effort to hide his religious agenda. Attempting to broaden his base of support with Protestant dissenters and nonconformists, James granted religious freedom to all.

James’s opponents, a powerful coalition of eminent persons in Parliament and the Church of England, offered the English throne to James’s heir, his Protestant daughter Mary, and her Dutch husband, Prince William of Orange. In December 1688, James II, his queen, and their infant son fled to France. Early in 1689, William and Mary were crowned king and queen of England.