Long considered to be craftsmen comparable to butchers and barbers, surgeons began studying anatomy seriously and improved their art in the eighteenth century. With endless opportunities to practice, army surgeons on gory battlefields led the way.

The eighteenth-century surgeon (and patient) labored in the face of incredible difficulties. Almost all operations were performed without painkillers. Many patients died from the agony and shock of such operations. Surgery was also performed in utterly unsanitary conditions because there was no knowledge of bacteriology and the nature of infection. The simplest wound treated by a surgeon could fester and lead to death.