What kind of people left Europe, and what were their reasons for doing so? The European emigrant was generally a small farmer or skilled artisan trying hard to stay ahead of poverty. These small peasant landowners and village craftsmen typically left Europe because of the lack of available land and the growing availability of cheap factory-made goods, which threatened their traditional livelihoods.

Immigrants brought great benefits to the countries that received them, in large part because the vast majority were young, typically unmarried, and ready to work hard in the new land. Many Europeans moved but remained within Europe, settling temporarily or permanently in another European country. A substantial number of Europeans were actually migrants as opposed to immigrants who settled in new lands — that is, they returned home after some time abroad.

The likelihood of repatriation varied greatly by nationality. People who emigrated from the Balkans, for instance, were much more likely to return to their countries than people from Ireland or eastern European Jews. For those who returned, the possibility of buying land in the old country was of central importance. In Ireland, large, often-absentee landowners owned most land; little was up for sale. In Russia, most Jews faced discrimination and were forced to live in the Pale of Settlement (see "Jewish Life and the Limits of Enlightened Absolutism" in Chapter 16). Therefore, when Irish farmers and Russian Jewish artisans emigrated in search of opportunity, or, for Jews, to escape pogroms (see "Jewish Emancipation and Modern Anti-Semitism" in Chapter 23), it was basically a once-and-for-all departure.

Ties of family and friendship played a crucial role in the emigration process. Many people from a given province or village settled together in rural enclaves or tightly knit urban neighborhoods thousands of miles away. Very often a strong individual — a businessman, a religious leader, a family member — would blaze the way and others would follow, forming a “migration chain.”

Many landless young European men and women were spurred to leave by a spirit of revolt and independence. In Sweden and in Norway, in Jewish Russia and in Italy, these young people felt frustrated by the power of the small minority in the privileged classes, which often controlled both church and government, and resisted demands for change and greater opportunity.

Thus for many, emigration was a radical way to gain basic human rights. Emigration rates slowed in countries where the people won basic political and social reforms, such as the right to vote, equality before the law, and social security.