The earliest literature of the Greek civilization reflects the Greeks’ intense interest in examining the world as a way to understand themselves, their gods, and their surroundings. Through their epic poems, written around 800 B.C.E., Homer and Hesiod provided explanations for how the gods worked in the world and how humans should behave. Around this time the Greeks developed the polis system, in which independent communities defined their own political systems and societies. The poleis differed widely in their ideas of what made for an effective government, however, and their independent spirit made alliances with other communities difficult to maintain. Conflict between the two greatest poleis, Athens and Sparta, eventually led to the destruction of much of Greece’s progress. However, the warfare also marked a time of intellectual and cultural flourishing, as philosophers sought rational explanations for human nature and the world around them, lyric poets explored human thoughts and emotions in verse, and historians recorded the triumphs and failures of their civilization. The documents in this chapter address the Greek interest in individuals and communities, and the proper relationship between the two. In a related theme, they also discuss the definition of justice in a civilized world. ■