The nations that gained independence from the Spanish Empire in the Americas drew upon ideological currents that circulated in the Atlantic in the age of revolution in order to establish new frameworks of government and social organization (see Chapter 22). The dominant ideology of the era was liberalism Liberals sought to create representative republics with strong central governments framed by constitutions that defined and protected individual rights, in particular the right to freely own and buy and sell private property. Beginning with the United States, colonies that became independent nations in the Americas all adopted liberal constitutions.

The U.S. Constitution, in its earliest form, is an example of classic liberalism: it defined individual rights, but those individual rights were subordinated to property rights. Slaves were considered property rather than individuals with constitutional rights. Only property owners could vote, only men could own property, and the new government did not recognize the property of Indians. Thus, liberalism mainly served and protected oligarchs — the small number of individuals and families who had monopolized political power and economic resources since the colonial era. Liberalism preserved slavery, created tools that allowed the wealthy and powerful to continue to concentrate land ownership in the countryside, gave industrialists a free hand over their workers, and concentrated political power in the hands of those who held economic power.

By the end of the nineteenth century liberalism commingled with other ideologies such as Social Darwinism and scientific racism (see “Science for the Masses” in Chapter 24). This combination inspired the imperial ambitions of the United States toward Mexico and the Circum-Caribbean, the region that includes the Antilles as well as the lands that bound the Caribbean in Central America, southern North America, and northern South America.

Though liberalism provided the political and economic framework that replaced colonialism, nations of the Americas took different approaches. The United States deferred questions about centralized federal power over local state authority, as well as the legality of slavery, until its Civil War (1861–1865). After the North prevailed, economic growth under its liberal economic model accelerated. In Spanish America wars of independence left behind a weak consensus about government, which led to long cycles of civil war across many countries.

The lack of a shared political culture among powerful groups in Spanish America created a crisis of confidence. Large landowners held great local power that they refused to yield to politicians in a distant capital. Political factions feared that if a rival faction won power, it would not abide by the rules and limits framed by the constitution, or that a rival would use its governing authority to crush its opponents. The power vacuum that resulted was often filled by caudillos, strong leaders who came to power and governed through their personal charisma and leadership abilities. This form of leadership is known as caudillismo. The rule of a caudillo, anchored in his charisma and the loyalty of his followers, often provided temporary stability amid the struggles between liberals and conservatives, but caudillos cultivated their own prestige at the expense of building stable political institutions.