Printed Page 337

In addition to the conventional persuasive techniques described above, ad agencies draw on the association principle in many campaigns for consumer products. Through this technique, the agency associates a product with a positive cultural value or image—even if that value or image has little connection to the product. For example, many ads displayed visual symbols of American patriotism in the wake of the 9/11 terrorist attacks in an attempt to associate products and companies with national pride.

Yet this technique has also been used to link products with stereotyped caricatures of targeted consumer groups, such as men, women, or specific ethnic groups. For example, many ads have sought to appeal to women by portraying men as idiots who know nothing about how to use a washing machine or how to heat up leftovers for dinner. The assumption is that portraying men as idiots will make women feel better about themselves—and thus be attracted to the advertised product (see “Media Literacy Case Study: Idiots and Objects: Stereotyping in Advertising”).

Another popular use of the association principle is to claim that products are “real” and “natural”—possibly the most common adjectives used in advertising. For example, Coke sells itself as “the real thing.” The cosmetics industry offers synthetic products that make us look “natural.” And “green” marketing touts products that are often manufactured and not always environmentally friendly.

In the 1950s and 1960s, Philip Morris used the association principle to transform the image of its Marlboro filtered cigarette brand (considered a product for women in the 1920s) into a product for men. Ad campaigns featured images of active, rugged males, particularly cowboys. Three men, however, who appeared in these ad campaigns died of lung cancer caused by cigarette smoking. But that apparently hasn’t blunted the brand’s impact. By 2011, the branding consultancy BrandZ had named Marlboro the world’s eighth “most powerful [memorable] brand,” having an estimated worth of $67.5 billion. (Apple, Google, and IBM were the top three rated brands; see Table 11.1.)