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Because children and teenagers may influence billions of dollars each year in family spending—on everything from snacks to cars—advertisers have increasingly targeted them, often viewing young people as “consumers in training.” When ads influence youngsters in a good way (for example, by getting them interested in reading books), no one complains about advertising’s power. It’s when ads influence kids and teens in a dangerous way (such as tempting them with unhealthy foods) that concerns arise.

For years, groups such as Action for Children’s Television (ACT) worked to limit advertising aimed at children (especially ads promoting toys associated with a show). In addition, parent groups have pushed to limit the heavy promotion of unhealthy products like sugar-coated cereals during children’s TV programs. Congress has responded weakly, hesitant to question the First Amendment’s protection of commercial speech and pressured by determined lobbying from the advertising industry. The Children’s Television Act of 1990 mandated that networks provide some educational and informational children’s programming, but the act has been difficult to enforce and has done little to restrict advertising aimed at kids.

In addition to trying to control TV advertising aimed at young people, critics have complained about advertising that has encroached on school property. The introduction of Channel One into thousands of schools during the 1989–1990 school year has been one of the most controversial cases of in-school advertising. The brainchild of advertising firm Whittle Communications, Channel One offered free video and satellite equipment (tuned exclusively to Channel One) in exchange for a twelve-minute package of current-events programming that included two minutes of commercials.

Over the years, the National Dairy Council and other organizations have also used schools to promote products—for example, by providing free filmstrips, posters, magazines, folders, and study guides adorned with member companies’ logos. Many teachers, especially in underfunded districts, have been grateful for these free materials. However, many parent and teacher groups have objected to Channel One (now in about eight thousand middle and high schools in the United States), which in their view requires teens to watch commercial messages in a learning environment.