The first step to solving our waste problem is reducing the amount of trash being generated in the first place. The main federal legislation governing the disposal of solid and hazardous wastes in the United States is the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act, or RCRA, which was passed by the Congress in October 1976. RCRA banned open dumping of wastes and set standards for solid waste landfills. The act recommended reducing the amount of waste and recycling. Under the auspices of RCRA, the EPA developed a management framework called integrated waste management, an approach that aims ultimately to minimize the amount of waste that finds its way to a disposal site. The centerpiece of integrated waste management is a hierarchy of options in which reducing waste and reusing materials are given highest priority, followed by recycling and composting and energy recovery, with disposal as the least preferred option (Figure 12.18).

Reducing the amount of material that enters the waste stream is referred to as source reduction. As consumers, we can contribute by reusing, repairing, borrowing, or renting goods, which, for many, means adopting a new approach to living and consuming. Consider the purchases by a typical family. Boxes, cans, plastic wrappers, bags, and other packaging material surround nearly every type of food available at the grocery store. Plastic shopping bags, disposable diapers, bottled water, and other disposable products represent conveniences to consumers. The short-term benefit of these goods to the consumer is offset by the long-term consequences to the environment. In addition, nearly all the packaging for these items is non-biodegradable plastic.

An effective way to encourage consumers to make a different choice is to use incentives or penalties. Incentives include offering discounts for bringing your own beverage container or shopping bag. Several high-profile businesses offer such incentives. Penalties are imposed when customers are asked to pay extra for these items. Governments can also intervene. In California, 138 cities and counties have banned single-use plastic bags, and in September 2014, a statewide ban went into effect, forcing retailers to charge 10 cents or more for recycled paper bags in order to encourage customers to bring in reusable bags. The bill did not pass without controversy, however. Within days of it being signed into law, plastic bag manufacturers launched a drive to put a referendum on the issue before the voters, arguing that banning single-use plastic bags would eliminate jobs. As a result, the fate of the law will be decided in a statewide vote in November 2016. Other states and municipalities are also considering such laws.

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The business community can make fundamental contributions to source reduction by redesigning products and packaging. Simply reducing the weights of packaging or using lighter-gauge metals in appliances and other products, without impairing function, could reduce the amount of solid waste. For example, manufacturers have reduced the weights of aluminum cans by over 15% in recent years. Another example of the business community reducing waste is through the reuse of shipping pallets. Millions of the wooden pallets used for shipping heavy goods are now being reused instead of being discarded after one use. The online retailer Amazon.com has introduced a frustration-free packaging program, which requires manufacturers to offer products for shipment in easy-to-open, recyclable packages and to avoid using plastic clamshell casings. Tallying up the total environmental impact of a product from the cradle to the grave—that is, from raw material extraction to recycling and disposal—is known as life cycle assessment; it has the potential to help consumers make informed choices about their buying decisions (see Chapter 14, page 453).

Because of the threat they pose to humans and other organisms, hazardous wastes are particularly problematic. As individuals, we need to take care to properly dispose of any hazardous household wastes. Fortunately, many local communities have special collection sites available or dedicated days scheduled to dispose of this waste safely. The activities of significant industrial generators of hazardous waste are subject to a variety of local, state, federal, and international regulations. One of the most notable provisions in the RCRA requires manufacturers to keep records on the generation, transport, treatment, and eventual disposal of hazardous wastes. Had such a law been enacted at an earlier time in U.S. history, it would likely have prevented the creation of the hundreds of thousands of brownfields that dot the country today.

As with municipal solid waste, reducing the amount of hazardous waste is critical. Preventing the release of hazardous waste is not only good for the environment but can also be economically beneficial by reducing the expense of hazardous waste treatment, transport, and disposal. For example, Siemens Water Technologies, a leader in hazardous waste treatment and source reduction, helped Marathon Norco Aerospace in Waco, Texas, reduce its generation of hazardous waste by 70%. Marathon Norco Aerospace manufactures high-quality nickel cadmium batteries for the aerospace industry, but in the process generates waste containing hazardous concentrations of heavy metals, especially cadmium and chromium. The volume of these wastes and the concentrations of metals in them add to manufacturing expenses due to the high costs of transport, disposal, and recordkeeping associated with hazardous waste management.

By installing a modern Siemens wastewater treatment system, Marathon Norco Aerospace reduced the concentrations of cadmium and chromium in effluent at the plant to below permitted levels. The new equipment also lowered costs by decreasing the volume of waste sent for disposal and eliminating the high labor costs associated with the outdated equipment that the Siemens’ system replaced. In most settings, waste reduction has not entirely eliminated the need for hazardous waste disposal.