1.4 The integrity of science depends on following a strict code of ethical conduct

The scientific process depends critically on the competence and honesty of scientists. If scientists engage in unethical research practice, their findings cannot be trusted, leaving society with no sound basis for making decisions regarding environmental issues.

Data Treatment

data The measurements made during a scientific study.

The measurements and other information gathered during a scientific study are generally referred to as data. Because of their fundamental importance to science and, increasingly, to society at large, data must be gathered and managed very carefully (Figure 1.12). The most important obligation of the scientist is to be as accurate as possible in the recording, reporting, and sharing of data with other researchers. If research results cannot be verified, they are generally eventually discarded as “unsupported by further study.”

RECORDING AND MANAGING DATA: FUNDAMENTAL PROCESSES IN SCIENCE
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FIGURE 1.12 No aspect of research is more important to the integrity of science than careful data gathering and management. Here, Dr. Eton Codling records data on corn growing on soil treated to reduce nutrient losses.
(Scott Bauer/Agricultural Research Service/USDA)

Research Misconduct

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No violation of scientific ethics is more serious than research misconduct, which goes beyond sloppy data collection into purposeful deception. This sin generally falls into three categories: fabrication, falsification, and plagiarism. Fabrication occurs when a scientist simply makes up data or results. Falsification involves tampering with research materials or equipment or changing data, such that it alters the outcome of the research. Plagiarism is using the ideas, procedures, or research results of others without giving them proper credit. Research misconduct can destroy the careers of individual scientists and undermine the role of science in informing policy decisions. Fortunately, there are checks on the scientific process.

Publishing and Peer Review

peer review As part of the process of publishing scientific papers, experts in the field of research covered by a prospective scientific paper review the research prior to publication; they check for soundness of the methods, analyses, results, and coverage of the relevant prior publications on the subject.

Early scientists, such as the physicist Isaac Newton, often kept the results of their work secret, fearing that others would steal the credit. Scientific publishing came into being in the 17th century, under the sponsorship of the Royal Society of London, as a way of ensuring that scientists received credit for their discoveries. Heirs to that early effort are the many current research journals, such as Nature, one of the world’s most prestigious scientific journals. A key element in modern scientific publishing is peer review, in which experts in the field of research review scientific studies prior to publication for originality, soundness of the methods and analyses, significance of the results, and accuracy of the conclusions.

Conflict of Interest

conflict of interest Competing interests, including personal, philosophical, and financial interests, that may interfere with an objective judgment.

One factor that can interfere with the integrity of the scientific process is conflict of interest. Conflict of interest refers to competing interests, including personal, philosophical, and financial interests, which may interfere with the judgment of a researcher or reviewer of scientific work. Studies have shown that when a company funds research on a topic it has a financial interest in, such as the safety of a new drug or the environmental impact of a construction site, the results are more likely to be favorable to the company than if the research had been conducted independently. Personal relationships between researchers, both positive and negative, can encourage poor judgment and even research misconduct. Similarly, strongly held philosophical positions or beliefs can also lead to improper manipulation of the scientific process.

Think About It

  1. Why is it important to avoid conflicts of interest as much as possible throughout a scientific investigation? Is it possible to avoid all conflicts of interest?

  2. How does peer review help to keep researchers honest and promote research ethics?

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Why is being “open-minded” such a critical quality to being successful in scientific research?

1.1–1.4 Science: Summary

The environment consists of a great number of physical, chemical, biological, and cultural factors that interact in complex ways. Science is both a formal process used to study these interactions and the body of knowledge resulting from that process. The domain of science comprises anything in the material world that can be observed by the senses or by extensions of them, from subatomic particles to distant galaxies. The core of the scientific process consists of gathering evidence through observations, experiments, and models to test hypotheses. A theory is a scientific hypothesis that has withstood sufficient testing—through observation, experimentation, and modeling—indicating it has a high probability of being correct. However, even after extensive testing and support for a theory, a certain level of uncertainty will remain. In the face of uncertainty, the precautionary principle advises taking steps to avoid harm to humans or the environment, even if some cause-and-effect relationships are not fully established scientifically.

For science to be useful, scientists must commit to a strict code of research ethics, taking care in gathering and managing data. Scientists should make their data available to other researchers to root out conflicts of interests, fabrication of data, falsification of procedures and results, and plagiarism. The peer review process helps assure the quality of published papers and the ethical behavior of scientists.