Vascular plants first appear in the fossil record approximately 425 million years ago. The evolution of xylem and phloem gave vascular plants advantages in size and hydration. They were able to outcompete bryophytes for light and other resources and to become the dominant plants on land.

Vascular plants can be divided into two groups according to how they complete their life cycle. Lycophytes, as well as ferns and horsetails, disperse by spores and rely on swimming sperm for fertilization, just like bryophytes. Gymnosperms and angiosperms are seed plants: They disperse seeds and rely on the aerial transport of pollen for fertilization. In this section, we focus on the spore-dispersing vascular plants: lycophytes, and ferns and horsetails. In both groups, the sporophyte dominates in physical size; the gametophyte is only a few centimeters across, thalloid in structure, and typically tolerant of desiccation. Thus, our discussion emphasizes the sporophytes of these plants.