APPENDIX A: Psychology at Work

Appendix A Introduction

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APPENDIX A

Psychology at Work

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A-1 What is flow, and what are the three subfields of industrial-organizational psychology?

Sometimes, Gene Weingarten noted (2002), a humor writer knows “when to just get out of the way.” Here are some sample job titles from the U.S. Department of Labor Dictionary of Occupational Titles: animal impersonator, human projectile, banana ripening-room supervisor, impregnator, impregnator helper, dope sprayer, finger waver, rug scratcher, egg smeller, bottom buffer, cookie breaker, brain picker, hand pouncer, bosom presser, and mother repairer.

For most of us, work is life’s biggest single waking activity. To live is to work. Work helps satisfy several levels of need identified in Abraham Maslow’s (1970) hierarchy of needs. Work supports us. Work connects us. Work defines us. Meeting someone for the first time, and wondering who they are, we may ask, “So, what do you do?”

Individuals across various occupations vary in their attitudes toward their work. Some view their work as a job, an unfulfilling but necessary way to make money. Others view their work as a career, an opportunity to advance from one position to a better position. The rest—those who view their work as a calling, a fulfilling and socially useful activity—report the highest satisfaction with their work and with their lives (Dik & Duffy, 2012; Wrzesniewski et al., 1997, 2001).

Have you ever noticed that when you are immersed in an activity, time flies? And that when you are watching the clock, it seems to move more slowly? French researchers have confirmed that the more we attend to an event’s duration, the longer it seems to last (Couli et al., 2004).

This finding would not surprise Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi [chick-SENT-me-hi] (1990, 1999). He observed that people’s quality of life increases when they are purposefully engaged. Between the anxiety of being overwhelmed and stressed, and the apathy of being underwhelmed and bored, lies a zone in which people experience flow. Can you recall being in a zoned-out flow state while texting or playing a video game? If so, then perhaps you can sympathize with the two Northwest Airlines pilots who in 2009 were so focused on their laptops that they missed Earth-to-pilot messages from their control tower. The pilots flew 150 miles past their Minneapolis destination—and lost their jobs.

Csikszentmihalyi formulated the flow concept after studying artists who spent hour after hour painting or sculpting with focused concentration. Immersed in a project, they worked as if nothing else mattered, and then, when finished, they promptly forgot about it. The artists seemed driven less by external rewards—money, praise, promotion—than by the intrinsic rewards of creating their art.

Csikszentmihalyi’s later observations, of people from varied occupations and countries, and of all ages, confirmed an overriding principle: It’s exhilarating to flow with an activity that fully engages our skills. Flow experiences boost our sense of self-esteem, competence, and well-being. Idleness may sound like bliss, but purposeful work enriches our lives. Busy people are happier (Hsee et al., 2010; Robinson & Martin, 2008). One research team interrupted people on about a quarter-million occasions (using a smart-phone app), and found people’s minds wandering 47 percent of the time. They were, on average, happier when not mind wandering (Killingsworth & Gilbert, 2010).

Life disrupted Playing and socializing online are ever-present sources of distraction. It takes energy to resist checking our phones, and time to refocus mental concentration after each disruption. Such regular interruptions disrupt flow, so it’s a good idea to instead schedule breaks for checking our handheld devices.

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In many nations work has changed, from farming to manufacturing to knowledge work. More and more work is outsourced to temporary employees and consultants or to workers communicating electronically from off-site workplaces. As work has changed, have our attitudes toward our work also changed? Has our satisfaction with work increased or decreased? Has the psychological contract—the sense of mutual obligations between workers and employers—become more or less trusting and secure? These are among the questions that fascinate psychologists who study work-related behavior.

The modern workforce The editorial team that supports the creation of this book and its teaching package works both in-house and from far-flung places. Clockwise from top left are Nancy Fleming in Massachusetts, Rachel Losh in New York, Betty Probert in Florida, Christine Brune in Alaska, Trish Morgan in Alberta, Tracey Kuehn in New York, and Kathryn Brownson in Michigan.

industrial-organizational (I/O) psychology the application of psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behavior in workplaces.

Industrial-organizational (I/O) psychology applies psychology’s principles to the workplace (TABLE A.1). Here we consider three of I/O psychology’s subfields:

Personnel psychology applies psychology’s methods and principles to selecting and evaluating workers. Personnel psychologists match people with jobs, by identifying and placing well-suited candidates.
Organizational psychology considers how work environments and management styles influence worker motivation, satisfaction, and productivity. Organizational psychologists modify jobs and supervision in ways that boost morale and productivity.

organizational psychology an I/O psychology subfield that examines organizational influences on worker satisfaction and productivity and facilitates organizational change.
Human factorspsychology explores how machines and environments can be optimally designed to fit human abilities. Human factors psychologists study people’s natural perceptions and inclinations to create user-friendly machines and work settings.

Human factorspsychology an I/O psychology subfield that explores how people and machines interact and how machines and physical environments can be made safe and easy to use.

Table A.1
I/O Psychology at Work
As scientists, consultants, and management professionals, industrial-organizational (I/O) psychologists are found working in varied areas:

RETRIEVAL PRACTICE

What is the value of finding flow in our work?

We become more likely to view our work as fulfilling and socially useful.

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