A
absolute threshold the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time. (p. 135)
accommodation adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information. (p. 76)
achievement motivation a desire for significant accomplishment; for mastery of skills or ideas; for control; and for attaining a high standard. (p. B-3)
achievement test a test designed to assess what a person has learned. (p. 239)
acquisition in classical conditioning, the initial stage, when we link a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. (In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response.) (p. 170)
action potential a nerve impulse. (p. 30)
active listening empathic listening in which the listener echoes, restates, and clarifies. A feature of Rogers’ client-centered therapy. (p. 413)
adaptation-level phenomenon our tendency to form judgments (of sounds, of lights, of income) relative to a neutral level defined by our past experiences. (p. 304)
addiction compulsive craving of drugs or certain behaviors (such as gambling) despite known harmful consequences. (p. 381)
adolescence the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence. (p. 86)
adrenal [ah-DREEN-el] glands pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine) that help arouse the body in times of stress. (p. 36)
aerobic exercise sustained activity that increases heart and lung fitness; may also reduce depression and anxiety. (p. 296)
aggression any act intended to harm someone physically or emotionally. (pp. 108, 354)
AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome) a life-threatening, sexually transmitted infection caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). AIDS depletes the immune system, leaving the person vulnerable to infections. (p. 117)
alcohol use disorder (popularly known as alcoholism). Alcohol use marked by tolerance, withdrawal, and a drive to continue problematic use. (p. 382)
algorithm a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees you will solve a particular problem. Contrasts with the usually speedier—but also more error-prone—use of heuristics. (p. 220)
all-or-none response a neuron’s reaction of either firing (with a full-strength response) or not firing. (p. 31)
alpha waves relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state. (p. 53)
altruism unselfish concern for the welfare of others. (p. 363)
amnesia literally “without memory”—a loss of memory, often due to brain trauma, injury, or disease. (p. 206)
amphetamines drugs that stimulate neural activity, causing speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes. (p. 383)
amygdala [uh-MIG-duh-la] two lima-bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotion. (p. 41)
androgyny displaying both traditional masculine and feminine psychological characteristics. (p. 114)
anorexia nervosa an eating disorder in which a person (usually an adolescent female) maintains a starvation diet despite being significantly underweight; sometimes accompanied by excessive exercise. (p. 400)
antianxiety drugs drugs used to control anxiety and agitation. (p. 426)
antidepressant drugs drugs used to treat depression, anxiety disorders, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and posttraumatic stress disorder. (Several widely used antidepressant drugs are selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors—SSRIs.) (p. 426)
antipsychotic drugs drugs used to treat schizophrenia and other forms of severe thought disorders. (p. 425)
antisocial personality disorder a personality disorder in which the person (usually a man) exhibits a lack of conscience for wrongdoing, even toward friends and family members; may be aggressive and ruthless or a clever con artist. (p. 402)
anxiety disorders psychological disorders characterized by distressing, persistent anxiety or maladaptive behaviors that reduce anxiety. (p. 375)
aptitude test a test designed to predict a person’s future performance; aptitude is the capacity to learn. (p. 239)
asexual having no sexual attraction to others. (p. 115)
assimilation interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas. (p. 76)
association areas cerebral cortex areas involved primarily in higher mental functions, such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking. (p. 45)
associative learning learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning). (p. 168)
attachment an emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver, and showing distress on separation. (p. 81)
attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) a psychological disorder marked by extreme inattention and/or hyperactivity and impulsivity. (p. 372)
attitude feelings, often based on our beliefs, that predispose us to respond in a particular way to objects, people, and events. (p. 339)
audition the sense or act of hearing. (p. 151)
autism spectrum disorder a disorder that appears in childhood and is marked by significant deficiencies in communication and social interaction, and by rigidly fixated interests and repetitive behaviors. (p. 78)
automatic processing unconscious encoding of everyday information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings. (p. 195)
autonomic [aw-tuh-NAHM-ik] nervous system peripheral nervous system division controlling the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart). Its sympathetic subdivision arouses; its parasympathetic subdivision calms. (p. 34)
availability heuristic judging the likelihood of an event based on its availability in memory; if an event comes readily to mind (perhaps because it was vivid), we assume it must be common. (p. 222)
aversive conditioning a type of counterconditioning that associates an unpleasant state (such as nausea) with an unwanted behavior (such as drinking alcohol). (p. 415)
axon neuron extension that sends messages to other neurons or cells. (p. 30)
B
babbling stage beginning at about 4 months, the stage of speech development in which the infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language. (p. 230)
barbiturates drugs that depress the activity of the central nervous system, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgment. (p. 383)
basal metabolic rate the body’s resting rate of energy output. (p. 259)
basic trust according to Erik Erikson, a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy; said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers. (p. 83)
behavior therapy therapeutic approach that applies learning principles to the elimination of unwanted behaviors. (p. 414)
behaviorism the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2). (pp. 3, 183)
belief perseverance clinging to beliefs and ignoring evidence that proves they are wrong. (p. 223)
binge-eating disorder significant binge eating, followed by distress, disgust, or guilt, but without the purging, fasting, or excessive exercise that marks bulimia nervosa. (p. 400)
binocular cue a depth cue, such as retinal disparity, that depends on the use of two eyes. (p. 147)
biological constraints evolved biological tendencies that predispose animals’ behavior and learning. Thus, certain behaviors are more easily learned by some animals than others. (p. 182)
biological psychology a branch of psychology concerned with the links between biology and behavior. (p. 30)
biomedical therapy prescribed medications or procedures that act directly on the person’s physiology. (p. 410)
biopsychosocial approach an approach that integrates different but complementary views from biological, psychological, and social-cultural viewpoints. (p. 6)
bipolar disorder a mood disorder in which the person alternates between the hopelessness and lethargy of depression and the overexcited state of mania. (Formerly called manic-depressive disorder.) (p. 390)
blind spot the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye; this part of the retina is “blind” because it has no receptor cells. (p. 141)
bottom-up processing analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain’s integration of sensory information. (p. 134)
brainstem the oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; responsible for automatic survival functions. (p. 37)
Broca’s area controls language expression—an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech. (p. 232)
bulimia nervosa an eating disorder in which a person alternates binge eating (usually of high-calorie foods) with purging (by vomiting or laxative use), fasting, or excessive exercise. (p. 400)
bystander effect the tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present. (p. 364)
C
Cannon-Bard theory the theory that an emotion-arousing stimulus simultaneously triggers (1) physiological responses and (2) the subjective experience of emotion. (p. 270)
case study a descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles. (p. 14)
central nervous system (CNS) the brain and spinal cord. (p. 33)
cerebellum [sehr-uh-BELL-um] the “little brain” at the rear of the brainstem; functions include processing sensory input and coordinating movement output and balance. (p. 40)
cerebral [seh-REE-bruhl] cortex thin layer of interconnected neurons covering the cerebral hemispheres; the body’s ultimate control and information-processing center. (p. 42)
change blindness failure to notice changes in the environment. (p. 52)
chromosomes threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes. (p. 68)
chunking organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically. (p. 197)
circadian [ser-KAY-dee-an] rhythm internal biological clock; regular bodily rhythms (for example, of temperature and wakefulness) that occur on a 24-hour cycle. (p. 52)
classical conditioning a type of learning in which we learn to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events. (p. 169)
client-centered therapy a humanistic therapy, developed by Carl Rogers, in which the therapist uses techniques such as active listening within a genuine, accepting, empathic environment to promote clients’ growth. (Also called person-centered therapy.) (p. 413)
cochlea [KOHK-lee-uh] a coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear; sound waves traveling through the cochlear fluid trigger nerve impulses. (p. 152)
cochlear implant a device for converting sounds into electrical signals and stimulating the auditory nerve through electrodes threaded into the cochlea. (p. 153)
cognition all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating. (pp. 75, 220)
cognitive-behavioral therapy a popular integrative therapy that combines cognitive therapy (changing self-defeating thinking) with behavior therapy (changing behavior). (p. 418)
cognitive dissonance theory the theory that we act to reduce the discomfort (dissonance) we feel when two of our thoughts (cognitions) clash. For example, when we become aware that our attitudes and our actions don’t match, we may change our attitudes so that we feel more comfortable. (p. 341)
cognitive learning the acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language. (p. 168)
cognitive map a mental image of the layout of one’s environment. (p. 184)
cognitive neuroscience the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with mental activity (including perception, thinking, memory, and language). (p. 3)
cognitive therapy therapeutic approach that teaches people new, more adaptive ways of thinking; based on the assumption that thoughts intervene between events and our emotional reactions. (p. 417)
collectivism giving priority to the goals of our group (often our extended family or work group) and defining our identity accordingly. (p. 332)
color constancy perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing illumination alters the wavelengths reflected by the object. (p. 149)
companionate love the deep affectionate attachment we feel for those with whom our lives are intertwined. (p. 362)
concept a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, and people. (p. 220)
concrete operational stage in Piaget’s theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 6 or 7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events. (p. 79)
conditioned reinforcer (also known as secondary reinforcer) an event that gains its reinforcing power through its link with a primary reinforcer. (p. 176)
conditioned response (CR) in classical conditioning, a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS). (p. 170)
conditioned stimulus (CS) in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response (CR). (p. 170)
conduction hearing loss hearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea. (p. 153)
cones retinal receptor cells that are concentrated near the center of the retina; in daylight or well-lit conditions, cones detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations. (p. 141)
confirmation bias a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort evidence that contradicts them. (p. 221)
conflict a perceived incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas. (p. 365)
conformity adjusting our behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard. (p. 342)
confounding variable in an experiment, a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect. (p. 19)
consciousness our awareness of ourselves and our environment. (p. 50)
conservation the principle (which Piaget believed to be a part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in shapes. (p. 77)
continuous reinforcement reinforcing a desired response every time it occurs. (p. 177)
control group in an experiment, the group not exposed to the treatment; the control group serves as a comparison with the experimental group for judging the effect of the treatment. (p. 18)
convergent thinking narrows the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution. (p. 226)
coping reducing stress using emotional, cognitive, or behavioral methods. (p. 291)
coronary heart disease the clogging of the vessels that nourish the heart muscle; the leading cause of death in the United States and many other countries. (p. 289)
corpus callosum [KOR-pus kah-LOW-sum] large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them. (p. 48)
correlation a measure of the extent to which two events vary together, and thus of how well either one predicts the other. The correlation coefficient is the mathematical expression of the relationship, ranging from −1.00 to +1.00, with 0 indicating no relationship. (p. 16)
correlation coefficient a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from −1.00 to +1.00). (p. A-4)
counterconditioning behavior therapy procedures that use classical conditioning to evoke new responses to stimuli that are triggering unwanted behaviors; includes exposure therapies and aversive conditioning. (p. 414)
creativity the ability to produce new and valuable ideas. (p. 226)
critical period a period early in life when exposure to certain stimuli or experiences is needed for proper development. (p. 74)
critical thinking thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, uncovers hidden values, weighs evidence, and assesses conclusions. (p. 6)
cross-sectional study a study in which people of different ages are compared with one another. (p. 245)
crystallized intelligence our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age. (p. 246)
culture the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and handed down from one generation to the next. (p. 7)
D
debriefing after an experiment ends, explaining to participants the study’s purpose and any deceptions researchers used. (p. 22)
defense mechanisms in psychoanalytic theory, the ego’s protective methods of reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality. (p. 314)
deindividuation the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity. (p. 348)
déjà vu that eerie sense that “I’ve experienced this before.” Cues from the current situation may unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience. (p. 211)
delta waves the large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep. (p. 54)
delusions false beliefs, often of persecution or grandeur, that may accompany schizophrenia and other disorders. (p. 396)
dendrites neuron extensions that receive messages and conduct them toward the cell body. (p. 30)
dependent variable in an experiment, the factor that is measured; the variable that may change when the independent variable is manipulated. (p. 19)
depressants drugs (such as alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates) that reduce (depress) neural activity and slow body functions. (p. 381)
depth perception the ability to see objects in three dimensions, although the images that strike the retina are two-dimensional; allows us to judge distance. (p. 146)
developmental psychology branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span. (p. 68)
difference threshold the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50 percent of the time. We experience the difference threshold as a just noticeable difference (or jnd). (p. 136)
discrimination (1) in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other irrelevant stimuli. (p. 172) (2) in social psychology, unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group and its members. (p. 350)
dissociative disorder a disorder in which conscious awareness becomes separated (dissociated) from previous memories, thoughts, and feelings. (p. 400)
dissociative identity disorder (DID) a controversial, rare dissociative disorder in which a person exhibits two or more distinct and alternating personalities. Formerly called multiple personality disorder. (p. 401)
divergent thinking expands the number of possible problem solutions (creative thinking that diverges in different directions). (p. 226)
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) a molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes. (p. 68)
double-blind procedure a procedure in which participants and research staff are ignorant (blind) about who has received the treatment or a placebo. (p. 18)
Down syndrome a condition of mild to severe intellectual disability and associated physical disorders caused by an extra copy of chromosome 21. (p. 242)
dream sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person’s mind. (p. 60)
drive-reduction theory the idea that a physiological need creates an aroused state (a drive) that motivates us to satisfy the need. (p. 256)
DSM-5 the American Psychiatric Association’s Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition; a widely used system for classifying psychological disorders. (p. 373)
dual processing the principle that, at the same time, our mind processes information on separate conscious and unconscious tracks. (p. 8)
E
eclectic approach an approach to psychotherapy that, depending on the client’s problems, uses techniques from various forms of therapy. (p. 410)
Ecstasy (MDMA) a synthetic stimulant and mild hallucinogen. Produces euphoria and social intimacy, but with short-term health risks and longer-term harm to serotonin-producing neurons and to mood and cognition. (p. 385)
EEG (electroencephalograph) device that uses electrodes placed on the scalp to record waves of electrical activity sweeping across the brain’s surface. (The record of those brain waves is an electroencephalogram.) (p. 38)
effortful processing encoding that requires attention and conscious effort. (p. 195)
ego the largely conscious, “executive” part of personality that, according to Freud, balances the demands of the id, superego, and reality. The ego operates on the reality principle, satisfying the id’s desires in ways that will realistically bring pleasure rather than pain. (p. 313)
egocentrism in Piaget’s theory, the preoperational child’s difficulty taking another’s point of view. (p. 78)
electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) a biomedical therapy for severely depressed patients in which a brief electric current is sent through the brain of an anesthetized patient. (p. 427)
embodied cognition the influence of bodily sensations, gestures, and other states on cognitive preferences and judgments. (p. 161)
embryo the developing human organism from about 2 weeks after fertilization through the second month. (p. 70)
emerging adulthood a period from about age 18 to the mid-twenties, when many in Western cultures are no longer adolescents but have not yet achieved full independence as adults. (p. 92)
emotion a response of the whole organism, involving (1) bodily arousal, (2) expressive behaviors, and (3) conscious experience. (p. 269)
emotional intelligence the ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions. (p. 238)
emotion-focused coping attempting to reduce stress by avoiding or ignoring a stressor and attending to emotional needs related to our stress reaction. (p. 291)
encoding the process of getting information into the memory system. (p. 194)
endocrine [EN-duh-krin] system the body’s “slow” chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream. (p. 36)
endorphins [en-DOR-fins] “morphine within”—natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure. (p. 32)
environment every external influence, from prenatal nutrition to social support in later life. (p. 69)
epigenetics the study of environmental influences on gene expression that occur without a DNA change. (p. 70)
equity a condition in which people receive from a relationship in proportion to what they give to it. (p. 362)
erectile disorder inability to develop or maintain an erection due to insufficient blood flow to the penis. (p. 117)
estrogens sex hormones that contribute to female sex characteristics and are secreted in greater amounts by females than by males. In nonhuman female mammals, estrogen levels peak during ovulation, promoting sexual receptivity. (p. 115)
evidence-based practice clinical decision making that integrates the best available research with clinical expertise and patient characteristics and preferences. (p. 422)
evolutionary psychology the study of how our behavior and mind have changed in adaptive ways over time due to natural selection. (p. 125)
experiment a method in which researchers vary one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable). (p. 17)
experimental group in an experiment, the group exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable. (p. 18)
explicit memory memory of facts and personal events you can consciously retrieve. (Also called declarative memory.) (p. 195)
exposure therapies behavioral techniques, such as systematic desensitization and virtual reality exposure therapy, that treat anxieties by exposing people (in imagination or actual situations) to the things they fear and avoid. (p. 414)
external locus of control the perception that chance or outside forces beyond our personal control determine our fate. (p. 292)
extinction in classical conditioning, the weakening of a conditioned response when an unconditioned stimulus does not follow a conditioned stimulus. (In operant conditioning, the weakening of a response when it is no longer reinforced.) (p. 171)
extrasensory perception (ESP) the controversial claim that perception can occur apart from sensory input, such as through telepathy, clairvoyance, and precognition. (p. 161)
extrinsic motivation a desire to perform a behavior to gain a reward or avoid punishment. (p. 184)
F
facial feedback effect the tendency of facial muscle states to trigger corresponding feelings such as fear, anger, or happiness. (p. 278)
factor a cluster of behavior tendencies that occur together. (p. 322)
family therapy therapy that treats the family as a system. Views an individual’s unwanted behaviors as influenced by, or directed at, other family members. (p. 419)
feature detectors nerve cells in the brain that respond to specific features of a stimulus, such as edges, lines, and angles. (p. 142)
feel-good, do-good phenomenon our tendency to be helpful when already in a good mood. (p. 301)
female orgasmic disorder feeling distressed due to infrequently or never experiencing orgasm. (p. 117)
fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) physical and mental abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman’s heavy drinking. In severe cases, signs include a small, out-of-proportion head and abnormal facial features. (p. 71)
fetus the developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth. (p. 71)
fight-or-flight response an emergency response, including activity of the sympathetic nervous system, that mobilizes energy and activity for attacking or escaping a threat. (p. 285)
figure-ground the organization of the visual field into objects (the figures) that stand out from their surroundings (the ground). (p. 146)
fixation (1) in personality theory, according to Freud, a lingering focus of pleasure-seeking energies at an earlier psychosexual stage, in which conflicts were unresolved. (p. 314) (2) in thinking, the inability to see a problem from a new perspective; an obstacle to problem solving. (p. 221)
fixed-interval schedule in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed. (p. 177)
fixed-ratio schedule in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses. (p. 177)
flashbulb memory a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event. (p. 201)
flow a completely involved, focused state, with lowered awareness of self and time; results from full engagement of our skills. (p. B-1)
fluid intelligence our ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulthood. (p. 246)
fMRI (functional MRI) a technique for revealing bloodflow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans. fMRI scans show brain function. (p. 38)
foot-in-the-door phenomenon the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request. (p. 340)
formal operational stage in Piaget’s theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts. (p. 79)
framing the way an issue is posed; framing can significantly affect decisions and judgments. (p. 223)
fraternal twins (dizygotic twins) twins who develop from separate fertilized eggs. They are genetically no closer than non-twin brothers and sisters, but they share a prenatal environment. (p. 71)
free association in psychoanalysis, a method of exploring the unconscious in which the person relaxes and says whatever comes to mind, no matter how unimportant or embarrassing. (p. 312)
frequency the number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time (for example, per second). (p. 151)
frontal lobes portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgments. (p. 41)
frustration-aggression principle the principle that frustration—the blocking of an attempt to achieve some goal—creates anger, which can generate aggression. (p. 355)
fundamental attribution error the tendency, when analyzing others’ behavior, to overestimate the influence of personal traits and underestimate the effects of the situation. (p. 338)
G
gender the roles and characteristics that a culture expects from those defined as male and female. (p. 108)
gender identity our sense of being male or female. (p. 113)
gender role a set of expected behaviors for males or for females. (p. 113)
gender typing the acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role. (p. 114)
general adaptation syndrome (GAS) Selye’s concept of the body’s adaptive response to stress in three stages—alarm, resistance, exhaustion. (p. 285)
general intelligence (g) a general intelligence factor that, according to Spearman and others, underlies specific mental abilities and is therefore measured by every task on an intelligence test. (p. 236)
generalization in classical conditioning, the tendency, after conditioning, to respond similarly to stimuli that resemble the conditioned stimulus. (p. 172)
generalized anxiety disorder an anxiety disorder in which a person is continually tense, fearful, and in a state of autonomic nervous system arousal. (p. 376)
genes the biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes; segments of DNA. (p. 68)
genome the complete instructions for making an organism, consisting of all the genetic material in that organism’s chromosomes. (p. 68)
gestalt an organized whole. Gestalt psychologists emphasized our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes. (p. 145)
glial cells (glia) cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons; they may also play a role in learning, thinking, and memory. (p. 30)
glucose the form of sugar that circulates in the blood and provides the major source of energy for body tissues. When its level is low, we feel hunger. (p. 258)
grammar in a specific language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others. (p. 231)
group polarization strengthening of a group’s preexisting attitudes through discussions within the group. (p. 348)
group therapy therapy conducted with groups rather than individuals, providing benefits from group interaction. (p. 419)
grouping the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into meaningful groups. (p. 146)
groupthink the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives. (p. 349)
H
hallucination false sensory experience, such as hearing something in the absence of an external auditory stimulus. (p. 45)
hallucinogens psychedelic (“mind-manifesting”) drugs, such as LSD, that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input. (p. 385)
heredity the genetic transfer of characteristics from parents to off-spring. (p. 68)
heritability the portion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes. The heritability of a trait may vary, depending on the population and the environment. (p. 244)
heuristic a simple thinking strategy that often allows you to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error prone than algorithms. (p. 200)
hierarchy of needs Maslow’s pyramid of human needs; at the base are physiological needs. These basic needs must be satisfied before higher-level safety needs, and then psychological needs, become active. (pp. 257, 319)
hindsight bias the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that we could have predicted it. (Also known as the I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon.) (p. 9)
hippocampus a neural center located in the limbic system; helps process explicit memories for storage. (p. 199)
homeostasis a tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation of any aspect of body chemistry, such as blood glucose, around a particular level. (p. 256)
hormones chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues. (p. 36)
hue the dimension of color that is determined by the wavelength of light; what we know as the color names blue, green, and so forth. (p. 140)
human factors psychology an I/O psychology subfield that explores how people and machines interact and how machines and physical environments can be made safe and easy to use. (p. B-2)
humanistic psychology emphasized the growth potential of healthy people. (p. 3)
hypnosis a social interaction in which one person (the subject) responds to a suggestion by another person (the hypnotist) that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously occur. (p. 156)
hypothalamus [hi-po-THAL-uh-muss] a neural structure lying below (hypo) the thalamus; directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward. (p. 41)
hypothesis a testable prediction, often implied by a theory. (p. 12)
I
id a reservoir of unconscious psychic energy that, according to Freud, strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives. The id operates on the pleasure principle, demanding immediate gratification. (p. 313)
identical twins (monozygotic twins) twins who develop from a single fertilized egg that splits in two, creating two genetically identical siblings. (p. 71)
identification the process by which, according to Freud, children incorporate their parents’ values into their developing superegos. (p. 314)
identity our sense of self; according to Erikson, the adolescent’s task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and blending various roles. (p. 89)
implicit memory retaining learned skills, or classically conditioned associations, without conscious awareness. (Also called nondeclarative memory.) (p. 195)
inattentional blindness failure to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere. (p. 51)
incentive a positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behavior. (p. 256)
independent variable in an experiment, the factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied. (p. 19)
individualism giving priority to our own goals over group goals and defining our identity in terms of personal traits rather than group membership. (p. 331)
industrial-organizational (I/O) psychology the application of psychological concepts and methods to human behavior in workplaces. (p. B-2)
informed consent giving people enough information about a study to enable them to decide whether they wish to participate. (p. 22)
ingroup “us”—people with whom we share a common identity. (p. 352)
ingroup bias the tendency to favor our own group. (p. 352)
insight a sudden realization of the solution to a problem; it contrasts with strategy-based solutions. (p. 220)
insight therapies therapies that aim to improve psychological functioning by increasing a person’s awareness of underlying motives and defenses. (p. 412)
insomnia recurring problems in falling or staying asleep. (p. 58)
intellectual disability a condition of limited mental ability, indicated by an intelligence score of 70 or below and difficulty adapting to the demands of life. (Formerly referred to as mental retardation.) (p. 242)
intelligence mental quality consisting of the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations. (p. 236)
intelligence quotient (IQ) defined originally as the ratio of mental age (ma) to chronological age (ca) multiplied by 100 (thus, IQ = ma × ca × 100). On contemporary intelligence tests, the average performance for a given age is assigned a score of 100. (p. 239)
intelligence test a method for assessing an individual’s mental aptitudes and comparing them with those of others, using numerical scores. (p. 239)
intensity the amount of energy in a light wave or sound wave, which influences what we perceive as brightness or loudness. Intensity is determined by the wave’s amplitude (height). (p. 140)
interaction the interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor (such as environment) depends on another factor (such as heredity). (p. 69)
internal locus of control the perception that we control our own fate. (p. 292)
interneuron neurons within the brain and spinal cord; communicate internally and process information between sensory inputs and motor outputs. (p. 33)
interpretation in psychoanalysis, the analyst’s noting supposed dream meanings, resistances, and other significant behaviors and events in order to promote insight. (p. 411)
intersex possessing biological sexual characteristics of both sexes. (p. 112)
intimacy in Erikson’s theory, the ability to form close, loving relationships; a primary developmental task in early adulthood. (p. 90)
intrinsic motivation a desire to perform a behavior well for its own sake. (p. 184)
intuition an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning. (p. 221)
J
James-Lange theory the theory that our experience of emotion is our awareness of our physiological responses to emotion-arousing stimuli. (p. 269)
just-world phenomenon the tendency to believe that the world is just and people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get. (p. 352)
K
kinesthesia [kin-ehs-THEE-see-a] the system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts. (p. 159)
L
language our spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning. (p. 229)
latent content according to Freud, the underlying meaning of a dream. (p. 60)
latent learning learning that is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it. (p. 184)
law of effect Thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely. (p. 174)
learned helplessness the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or person learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events. (p. 291)
learning the process of acquiring, through experience, new and relatively enduring information or behaviors. (p. 168)
limbic system neural system (including the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus) located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives. (p. 40)
lobotomy a psychosurgical procedure once used to calm uncontrollably emotional or violent patients. The procedure cut the nerves connecting the frontal lobes to the emotion-controlling centers of the inner brain. (p. 429)
longitudinal study research in which the same people are restudied and retested over a long period of time. (pp. 245, A-7)
long-term memory the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences. (p. 194)
long-term potentiation (LTP) an increase in a synapse’s firing potential. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory. (p. 201)
LSD a powerful hallucinogenic drug; also known as acid (lysergic acid diethylamide). (p. 386)
lymphocytes the two types of white blood cells that are part of the body’s immune system: B lymphocytes release antibodies that fight bacterial infections; T lymphocytes attack cancer cells, viruses, and foreign substances. (p. 287)
M
major depressive disorder a mood disorder in which a person experiences, in the absence of drugs or a medical condition, two or more weeks with five or more symptoms, at least one of which must be either (1) depressed mood or (2) loss of interest or pleasure. (p. 389)
mania a hyperactive, wildly optimistic state. (p. 390)
manifest content according to Freud, the remembered story line of a dream. (p. 60)
maturation biological growth processes leading to orderly changes in behavior, mostly independent of experience. (p. 73)
mean the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores. (p. A-2)
median the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it. (p. A-2)
medical model the concept that diseases, in this case psychological disorders, have physical causes that can be diagnosed, treated, and, in most cases, cured, often through treatment in a hospital. (p. 372)
medulla [muh-DUL-uh] the base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing. (p. 39)
memory the persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information. (p. 194)
memory trace lasting physical changes in the brain as a memory forms. (p. 207)
menarche [meh-NAR-key] the first menstrual period. (p. 111)
menopause the end of menstruation. In everyday use, it can also mean the biological transition a woman experiences from before until after the end of menstruation. (p. 95)
mental age a measure of intelligence test performance devised by Binet; the chronological age that most typically corresponds to a given level of performance. Thus, a child who does as well as an average 8-year-old is said to have a mental age of 8. (p. 239)
mere exposure effect the phenomenon that repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of them. (p. 359)
methamphetamine a powerfully addictive drug that stimulates the central nervous system with speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes; over time, appears to reduce baseline dopamine levels. (p. 385)
mindfulness meditation attending to current experiences in a nonjudgmental and accepting manner. (p. 298)
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) the most widely researched and clinically used of all personality tests. Originally developed to identify emotional disorders (still considered its most appropriate use), this test is now used for many other screening purposes. (p. 324)
mirror neuron neuron that fires when we perform certain actions and when we observe others performing those actions; neural basis for imitation and observational learning. (p. 186)
mirror-image perceptions mutual views often held by conflicting people, as when each side sees itself as ethical and peaceful and views the other side as evil and aggressive. (p. 365)
misinformation effect when a memory has been corrupted by misleading information. (p. 210)
mnemonics [nih-MON-iks] memory aids, especially techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices. (p. 197)
mode the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution. (p. A-2)
modeling the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior. (p. 184)
monocular cue a depth cue, such as interposition or linear perspective, available to either eye alone. (p. 147)
mood disorders psychological disorders characterized by emotional extremes. See major depressive disorder and bipolar disorder. (p. 389)
mood-congruent memory the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with your current good or bad mood. (p. 205)
motivation a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior. (p. 256)
motor cortex cerebral cortex area at the rear of the frontal lobes; controls voluntary movements. (p. 41)
motor neuron neuron that carries outgoing information from the central nervous system to the muscles and glands. (p. 33)
MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images of soft tissue. MRI scans show brain anatomy. (p. 38)
N
narcolepsy sleep disorder in which a person has uncontrollable sleep attacks, sometimes lapsing directly into REM sleep. (p. 59)
natural selection the principal that among the range of inherited trait variations, those that lead to increased reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations. (p. 126)
naturalistic observation a descriptive technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to change or control the situation. (p. 14)
nature–nurture issue the age-old controversy over the relative influence of genes and experience in the development of psychological traits and behaviors. Today’s psychological science sees traits and behaviors arising from the interaction of nature and nurture. (p. 7)
near-death experience an altered state of consciousness reported after a close brush with death (such as through cardiac arrest); often similar to drug-induced hallucinations. (p. 386)
negative reinforcement increases behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. A negative reinforcer is anything that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note: Negative reinforcement is not punishment.) (p. 175)
nerves bundled axons that form neural cables connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs. (p. 33)
nervous system the body’s speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the central and peripheral nervous systems. (p. 33)
neurogenesis formation of new neurons. (p. 47)
neuron a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system. (p. 30)
neurotransmitters neuron-produced chemicals that cross synapses to carry messages to other neurons or cells. (p. 31)
neutral stimulus (NS) in classical conditioning, a stimulus that evokes no response before conditioning. (p. 169)
nicotine a stimulating and highly addictive psychoactive drug in tobacco. (p. 383)
norm an understood rule for accepted and expected behavior in a given group. (p. 343)
normal curve (normal distribution) a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean (about 68 percent fall within one standard deviation of it) and fewer and fewer near the extremes. (p. 240)
O
object permanence the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived. (p. 76)
observational learning learning by observing others. (p. 184)
obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) a disorder characterized by unwanted repetitive thoughts (obsessions) and/or actions (compulsions). (p. 377)
occipital [ahk-SIP-uh-tuhl] lobes portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes areas that receive information from the visual fields. (p. 41)
Oedipus [ED-uh-puss] complex according to Freud, a boy’s sexual desires toward his mother and feelings of jealousy and hatred for the rival father. (p. 314)
one-word stage the stage in speech development, from about age 1 to 2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words. (p. 230)
operant behavior behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences. (p. 174)
operant chamber in operant conditioning research, a chamber (also known as a Skinner box) containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal’s rate of bar pressing or key pecking. (p. 174)
operant conditioning a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher. (p. 174)
operational definition a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures (operations) used in a research study. For example, human intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures. (p. 13)
opiates chemicals such as opium, morphine, and heroin, that depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety. (pp. 32, 381)
opponent-process theory the theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision. For example, some cells are “turned on” by green and “turned off” by red; others are turned on by red and off by green. (p. 144)
optic nerve the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain. (p. 141)
optimism the anticipation of positive outcomes. Optimists are people who expect the best and expect their efforts to lead to good things. (p. 293)
organizational psychology an I/O psychology subfield that examines organizational influences on worker satisfaction and productivity and facilitates organizational change. (p. B-2)
other-race effect the tendency to recall faces of one’s own race more accurately than faces of other races. (p. 353)
outgroup “them”—those perceived as different or apart from our group. (p. 352)
overconfidence the tendency to be more confident than correct—to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments. (p. 223)
P
panic disorder an anxiety disorder marked by unpredictable minutes-long episodes of intense dread in which a person may experience terror and accompanying chest pain, choking, or other frightening sensations, followed by worry about a possible next attack. (p. 376)
parallel processing the processing of many aspects of a problem or scene at the same time; the brain’s natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision. (p. 143)
paraphilias experiencing sexual arousal from fantasies, behaviors, or urges involving nonhuman objects, the suffering of self or others, and/or nonconsenting persons. (p. 117)
parasympathetic nervous system autonomic nervous system subdivision that calms the body, conserving its energy. (p. 34)
parietal [puh-RYE-uh-tuhl] lobes portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position. (p. 41)
partial (intermittent) reinforcement reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement. (p. 177)
passionate love an aroused state of intense positive absorption in another, usually present at the beginning of a love relationship. (p. 261)
perception the process by which our brain organizes and interprets sensory information, transforming it into meaningful objects and events. (p. 134)
perceptual adaptation in vision, the ability to adjust to an artificially displaced or even inverted visual field. (p. 150)
perceptual constancy perceiving objects as unchanging (having consistent color, brightness, shape, and size) even as illumination and retinal images change. (p. 148)
perceptual set a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another. (p. 138)
peripheral nervous system (PNS) the sensory and motor neurons connecting the central nervous system (CNS) to the rest of the body. (p. 133)
personal control our sense of controlling our environment rather than feeling helpless. (p. 291)
personality an individual’s characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting. (p. 311)
personality disorder an inflexible and enduring behavior pattern that impairs social functioning. (p. 402)
personality inventory a questionnaire (often with true-false or agree-disagree items) on which people respond to items designed to gauge a wide range of feelings and behaviors; used to assess selected personality traits. (p. 324)
personnel psychology an I/O psychology subfield that focuses on employee selection, placement, training, and appraisal. (p. B-2)
pessimism the anticipation of negative outcomes. Pessimists are people who expect the worst and doubt that their goals will be achieved. (p. 293)
PET (positron emission tomography) scan a view of brain activity showing where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task. (p. 38)
phobia an anxiety disorder marked by a persistent, irrational fear and avoidance of a specific object or situation. (p. 376)
physiological need a basic bodily requirement. (p. 256)
pitch a tone’s experienced highness or lowness; depends on frequency. (p. 151)
pituitary gland most influential endocrine gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands. (p. 37)
placebo [pluh-SEE-bo; Latin for “I shall please”] an inactive substance or condition that is sometimes given to those in a control group in place of the treatment given to the experimental group. (p. 18)
placebo effect results caused by expectations alone. (p. 18)
plasticity the brain’s ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience. (p. 47)
polygraph a machine, commonly used in attempts to detect lies, that measures some bodily responses (such as changes in perspiration, heart rate, and breathing) accompanying emotion. (p. 274)
population all those in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn. (Note: Except for national studies, this does not refer to a country’s whole population.) (p. 15)
positive psychology the scientific study of human functioning, with the goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities to thrive. (p. 8)
positive reinforcement increases behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food. A positive reinforcer is anything that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response. (p. 175)
posthypnotic suggestion a suggestion, made during a hypnosis session, to be carried out after the subject is no longer hypnotized; used by some clinicians to help control undesired symptoms and behaviors. (p. 156)
posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) a disorder characterized by haunting memories, nightmares, social withdrawal, jumpy anxiety, numbness of feeling, and/or insomnia lingering for four weeks or more after a traumatic experience. (p. 377)
prejudice an unjustifiable and usually negative attitude toward a group and its members. Prejudice generally involves stereotyped beliefs, negative feelings, and a predisposition to discriminatory action. (p. 350)
premature ejaculation sexual climax that occurs before the man or his partner wishes. (p. 117)
preoperational stage in Piaget’s theory, the stage (from about 2 to 6 or 7 years of age) in which a child learns to use language but cannot yet perform the mental operations of concrete logic. (p. 77)
primary reinforcer an event that is innately reinforcing, often by satisfying a biological need. (p. 176)
primary sex characteristics the body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible. (p. 111)
priming activating, often unconsciously, associations in our mind, thus setting us up to perceive, remember, or respond to objects or events in certain ways. (pp. 135, 204)
proactive interference the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information. (p. 208)
problem-focused coping attempting to reduce stress directly—by changing the stressor or the way we interact with that stressor. (p. 291)
projective test a personality test, such as the Rorschach, that provides an unclear image designed to trigger projection of the test-taker’s unconscious thoughts or feelings. (p. 316)
prosocial behavior positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior. (p. 186)
prototype a mental image or best example of a category. Matching new items to a prototype provides a quick and easy method for sorting items into categories (as when comparing feathered creatures to a prototypical bird, such as a robin). (p. 220)
psychoactive drug a chemical substance that alters perceptions and mood. (p. 380)
psychoanalysis (1) Sigmund Freud’s theory of personality that attributes thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts. (p. 312) (2) Freud’s therapeutic technique used in treating psychological disorders. Freud believed that the patient’s free associations, resistances, dreams, and transferences—and the analyst’s interpretations of them—released previously repressed feelings, allowing the patient to gain self-insight. (p. 410)
psychodynamic theories view of personality with a focus on the unconscious and the importance of childhood experiences. (p. 312)
psychodynamic therapy therapeutic approach derived from the psychoanalytic tradition; views individuals as responding to unconscious forces and childhood experiences, and seeks to enhance self-insight. (p. 412)
psychological disorder a syndrome marked by a clinically significant disturbance in a person’s thoughts, feelings, or behaviors. (p. 371)
psychology the science of behavior and mental processes. (p. 3)
psychoneuroimmunology the study of how psychological, neural, and endocrine processes combine to affect our immune system and health. (p. 287)
psychosexual stages the childhood stages of development (oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital) during which, according to Freud, the id’s pleasure-seeking energies focus on distinct erogenous zones. (p. 314)
psychosurgery surgery that removes or destroys brain tissue in an effort to change behavior. (p. 429)
psychotherapy treatment involving psychological techniques; consists of interactions between a trained therapist and someone seeking to overcome psychological difficulties or achieve personal growth. (p. 410)
puberty the period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing. (pp. 86, 111)
punishment an event that decreases the behavior it follows. (p. 178)
R
random assignment assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing any differences between the groups. (p. 18)
random sample a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion. (p. 15)
range the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution. (p. A-3)
recall memory demonstrated by retrieving information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test. (p. 202)
reciprocal determinism the interacting influences of behavior, internal personal factors, and environment. (p. 326)
reciprocity norm an expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them. (p. 365)
recognition memory demonstrated by identifying items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test. (p. 202)
reflex a simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk response. (pp. 36, 71)
refractory period a resting period after orgasm, during which a man cannot achieve another orgasm. (p. 116)
regression toward the mean the tendency for extreme or unusual scores or events to fall back (regress) toward the average. (p. A-6)
reinforcement in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows. (p. 174)
reinforcement schedule a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced. (p. 177)
relational aggression an act of aggression (physical or verbal) intended to harm a person’s relationship or social standing. (p. 109)
relative deprivation the perception that we are worse off relative to those with whom we compare ourselves. (p. 304)
relearning memory demonstrated by time saved when learning material a second time. (p. 202)
reliability the extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of scores on two halves of the test, on alternative forms of the test, or on retesting. (p. 240)
REM (rapid eye movement) sleep recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. Also known as paradoxical sleep, because the muscles are relaxed (except for minor twitches) but other body systems are active. (p. 53)
REM rebound the tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation. (p. 62)
repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) the application of repeated pulses of magnetic energy to the brain; used to stimulate or suppress brain activity. (p. 428)
replication repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances. (p. 13)
repression in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness the thoughts, feelings, and memories that arouse anxiety. (pp. 208, 314)
resilience the personal strength that helps most people cope with stress and recover from adversity and even trauma. (pp. 301, 431)
resistance in psychoanalysis, the blocking from consciousness of anxiety-laden material. (p. 411)
respondent behavior behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus. (p. 174)
reticular formation nerve network running through the brainstem and thalamus; plays an important role in controlling arousal. (p. 39)
retina the light-sensitive inner surface of the eye; contains the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information. (p. 140)
retinal disparity a binocular cue for perceiving depth. By comparing images from the two eyes, the brain computes distance—the greater the disparity (difference) between the two images, the closer the object. (p. 147)
retrieval the process of getting information out of memory storage. (p. 194)
retrieval cue any stimulus (event, feeling, place, and so on) linked to a specific memory. (p. 204)
retroactive interference the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information. (p. 208)
rods retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don’t respond. (p. 141)
role a set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave. (pp. 113, 340)
Rorschach inkblot test the most widely used projective test; a set of 10 inkblots, designed by Hermann Rorschach; seeks to identify people’s inner feelings by analyzing their interpretations of the blots. (p. 316)
S
savant syndrome a condition in which a person otherwise limited in mental ability has an exceptional specific skill, such as in computation or drawing. (p. 236)
scapegoat theory the theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame. (p. 352)
scatterplot a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two factors. The slope of the dots suggests the direction of the relationship between the two factors. How much the dots are scattered suggests the strength of the correlation (with little scatter indicating high correlation). (pp. 16, A-4)
schema a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information. (p. 76)
schizophrenia a psychological disorder characterized by delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, and/or diminished, inappropriate emotional expression. (p. 396)
secondary sex characteristics nonreproductive sexual traits, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair. (p. 111)
selective attention focusing conscious awareness on a particular stimulus. (p. 51)
self your image and understanding of who you are; in modern psychology, the idea that this is the center of personality, organizing your thoughts, feelings, and actions. (p. 328)
self-actualization according to Maslow, the psychological need that arises after basic physical and psychological needs are met and self-esteem is achieved; the motivation to fulfill our potential. (p. 319)
self-concept all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, “Who am I?” (p. 320)
self-disclosure revealing intimate aspects of ourselves to others. (p. 362)
self-efficacy our sense of competence and effectiveness. (p. 326)
self-esteem our feelings of high or low self-worth. (p. 329)
self-serving bias our readiness to perceive ourselves favorably. (p. 330)
self-transcendence according to Maslow, the striving for identity, meaning, and purpose beyond the self. (p. 319)
sensation the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment. (p. 134)
sensorimotor stage in Piaget’s theory, the stage (from birth to nearly 2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities. (p. 76)
sensorineural hearing loss hearing loss caused by damage to the cochlea’s receptor cells or to the auditory nerves; also called nerve deafness. (p. 153)
sensory adaptation reduced sensitivity in response to constant stimulation. (p. 137)
sensory interaction the principle that one sense may influence another, as when the smell of food influences its taste. (p. 160)
sensory memory the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system. (p. 194)
sensory neuron neuron that carries incoming information from the sensory receptors to the central nervous system. (p. 33)
serial position effect our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list. (p. 205)
set point the point at which your “weight thermostat” is supposedly set. When your body falls below this weight, increased hunger and a lowered metabolic rate may combine to restore lost weight. (p. 259)
sexual dysfunction a problem that consistently impairs sexual arousal or functioning. (p. 116)
sexual orientation an enduring sexual attraction toward members of either one’s own sex (homosexual orientation), the other sex (hetero-sexual orientation), or both sexes (bisexual orientation). (p. 120)
sexual response cycle the four stages of sexual responding described by Masters and Johnson—excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution. (p. 116)
shaping an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide actions closer and closer toward a desired behavior. (p. 174)
short-term memory activated memory that holds a few items briefly (such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing) before the information is stored or forgotten. (p. 194)
sleep periodic, natural loss of consciousness—as distinct from unconsciousness resulting from a coma, general anesthesia, or hibernation. (Adapted from Dement, 1999.) (p. 54)
sleep apnea a sleep disorder in which a sleeping person repeatedly stops breathing until blood oxygen is so low it awakens the person just long enough to draw a breath. (p. 59)
social clock the culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement. (p. 99)
social facilitation improved performance on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others. (p. 347)
social identity the “we” aspect of our self-concept; the part of our answer to “Who am I?” that comes from our group memberships. (p. 89)
social leadership group-oriented leadership that builds teamwork, resolves conflict, and offers support. (p. B-7)
social learning theory the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished. (p. 113)
social loafing the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable. (p. 347)
social psychology the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another. (p. 338)
social script culturally modeled guide for how to act in various situations. (p. 357)
social-cognitive perspective views behavior as influenced by the interaction between persons (and their thinking) and their social context. (p. 326)
social-responsibility norm an expectation that people will help those dependent upon them. (p. 365)
somatic nervous system peripheral nervous system division controlling the body’s skeletal muscles. Also called the skeletal nervous system. (p. 34)
somatosensory cortex cerebral cortex area at the front of the parietal lobes; registers and processes body touch and movement sensations. (p. 45)
source amnesia faulty memory for how, when, or where information was learned or imagined. (p. 211)
spacing effect the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice. (p. 198)
spermarche [sper-MAR-key] first ejaculation. (p. 111)
split brain condition in which the brain’s two hemispheres are isolated by cutting the fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) connecting them. (p. 48)
spontaneous recovery the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response. (p. 171)
spotlight effect overestimating others’ noticing and evaluating our appearance, performance, and blunders (as if we presume a spotlight shines on us). (p. 328)
SQ3R a study method incorporating five steps: Survey, Question, Read, Retrieve, Review. (p. 23)
standard deviation a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score. (p. A-3)
standardization defining uniform testing procedures and meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested group. (p. 240)
Stanford-Binet the widely used American revision (by Terman at Stanford University) of Binet’s original intelligence test. (p. 239)
statistical significance a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance. (p. A-7)
stereotype a generalized (sometimes accurate but often overgeneralized) belief about a group of people. (p. 350)
stereotype threat a self-confirming concern that we will be judged based on a negative stereotype. (p. 249)
stimulants drugs (such as caffeine, nicotine, and the more powerful amphetamines, cocaine, Ecstasy, and methamphetamines) that excite neural activity and speed up body functions. (p. 383)
stimulus any event or situation that evokes a response. (p. 168)
storage the process of retaining encoded information over time. (p. 194)
stranger anxiety the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age. (p. 81)
stress the process by which we perceive and respond to certain events, called stressors, that we appraise as threatening or challenging. (p. 284)
subjective well-being self-perceived happiness or satisfaction with life. Used along with measures of objective well-being (for example, physical and economic indicators) to judge our quality of life. (p. 302)
subliminal below our absolute threshold for conscious awareness. (p. 135)
substance use disorder continued substance craving and use despite significant life disruption and/or physical risk. (p. 380)
superego the part of personality that, according to Freud, represents internalized ideals and provides standards for judgment (the conscience) and for future goals. (p. 313)
superordinate goals shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation. (p. 366)
survey a descriptive technique for obtaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of that group. (p. 15)
sympathetic nervous system autonomic nervous system subdivision that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations. (p. 34)
synapse [SIN-aps] junction between the axon tip of a sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of a receiving neuron. (p. 30)
systematic desensitization a type of exposure therapy that associates a pleasant, relaxed state with gradually increasing, anxiety-triggering stimuli. Commonly used to treat phobias. (p. 415)
T
task leadership goal-oriented leadership that sets standards, organizes work, and focuses attention on goals. (p. B-7)
telegraphic speech early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram—“go car”—using mostly nouns and verbs. (p. 231)
temperament a person’s characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity. (p. 83)
temporal lobes portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes areas that receive information from the ears. (p. 41)
tend-and-befriend response under stress, people (especially women) often provide support to others (tend) and bond with and seek support from others (befriend). (p. 286)
teratogen [tuh-RAT-uh-jen] an agent, such as a chemical or virus, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm. (p. 71)
testing effect enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information. Also sometimes called the retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning. (pp. 23, 198)
testosterone the most important male sex hormone. Both males and females have it, but the additional testosterone in males stimulates the growth of the male sex organs in the fetus and the development of the male sex characteristics during puberty. (p. 111)
thalamus [THAL-uh-muss] area at the top of the brainstem; directs sensory messages to the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla. (p. 39)
THC the major active ingredient in marijuana; triggers a variety of effects, including mild hallucinations. (p. 386)
theory an explanation using principles that organize observations and predict behaviors or events. (p. 12)
theory of mind people’s ideas about their own and others’ mental states—about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts, and the behaviors these might predict. (p. 78)
threshold level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse. (p. 31)
token economy an operant conditioning procedure in which people earn a token for exhibiting a desired behavior and can later exchange the tokens for privileges or treats. (p. 416)
tolerance with repeated use, the desired effect requires larger doses. (p. 381)
top-down processing information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations. (p. 134)
trait a characteristic pattern of behavior or a tendency to feel and act in a certain way, as assessed by self-reports on a personality test. (p. 322)
transduction changing one form of energy into another. In sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses our brain can interpret. (p. 135)
transference in psychoanalysis, the patient’s transfer to the analyst of emotions linked with other relationships (such as love or hatred for a parent). (p. 411)
transgender an umbrella term describing people whose gender identity or expression differs from that associated with their birth sex. (p. 114)
two-factor theory Schachter and Singer’s theory that to experience emotion we must (1) be physically aroused and (2) cognitively label the arousal. (p. 270)
two-word stage beginning about age 2, the stage in speech development during which a child speaks mostly two-word statements. (p. 231)
Type A Friedman and Rosenman’s term for competitive, hard-driving, impatient, verbally aggressive, and anger-prone people. (p. 289)
Type B Friedman and Rosenman’s term for easygoing, relaxed people. (p. 289)
U
unconditional positive regard a caring, accepting, nonjudgmental attitude, which Carl Rogers believed would help clients develop self-awareness and self-acceptance. (pp. 320, 413)
unconditioned response (UR) in classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring response (such as salivation) to an unconditioned stimulus (US) (such as food in the mouth). (p. 170)
unconditioned stimulus (US) in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers a response (UR). (p. 170)
unconscious according to Freud, a reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories. According to contemporary psychologists, information processing of which we are unaware. (p. 312)
V
validity the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to. (p. 241)
variable-interval schedule in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals. (p. 177)
variable-ratio schedule in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses. (p. 177)
vestibular sense the sense of body movement and position, including the sense of balance. (p. 159)
virtual reality exposure therapy a counterconditioning technique that treats anxiety by creative electronic simulations in which people can safely face their greatest fears, such as airplane flying, spiders, or public speaking. (p. 415)
visual cliff a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals. (p. 146)
W
wavelength the distance from the peak of one light or sound wave to the peak of the next. (p. 140)
Weber’s law the principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (rather than a constant amount). (p. 137)
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) the WAIS is the most widely used intelligence test; contains verbal and performance (nonverbal) subtests. (p. 240)
Wernicke’s area controls language reception—a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe. (p. 232)
withdrawal the discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing an addictive drug or behavior. (p. 381)
working memory a newer understanding of short-term memory that stresses conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory. (p. 194)
X
X chromosome the sex chromosome found in both men and women. Females have two X chromosomes; males have one. An X chromosome from each parent produces a female child. (p. 111)
Y
Y chromosome the sex chromosome found only in males. When paired with an X chromosome from the mother, it produces a male child. (p. 111)
Young-Helmholtz trichromatic (three-color) theory the theory that the retina contains three different color receptors—one most sensitive to red, one to green, one to blue. When stimulated in combination, these cells can produce the perception of any color. (p. 144)
Z
zygote the fertilized egg; it enters a 2-week period of rapid cell division and develops into an embryo. (p. 70)