Index

I-1

boldface indicates a definition; italics indicates a figure.

A

Abiotic environment, 611, 611

ABO blood groups, inheritance of, 295, 295–297, 297

Acacia trees, ants and, 637–638

Acetaldehyde, 168

Acid precipitation, 666–668, 667, 668

Acids, 51, 51–53, 52, 53. See also Amino acids; Nucleic acids, Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA); Ribonucleic acid (RNA); Valproic acid

in stomach, 52, 53–54

Acoustical signals, 395

Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), 561. See also HIV/AIDS

Activation energy, 72

Activators, 73, 74

Active sites of enzymes, 72, 72

Active transport, 106, 106

Adaptation, 339

behavioral, 366, 366–368, 367

natural selection and, 339–341, 340

production by predation, 631–634, 632–634

Adaptive radiations, 428, 428–429, 429

Additive effects, 297

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP), 141, 141, 141–142, 142

active transport and, 106

as fuel, 116

synthesis in electron transport chain, 162–164, 162–164

Adults, 468

insect, 467, 468

African elephants, 412

Age pyramids, 595–596, 596, 597

Aging, 589

in Hutchinson-Gilford progeria syndrome, 233

longevity and, 589–590, 592–593, 593

natural selection and, 590–591, 591

slowing down process of, 593–594, 594

Agkistrodon rhodostoma, 650

Agriculture

biotechnology in, 208, 208–212

crop productivity and, 577–578, 578

faster growth and bigger bodies and, 211–212, 212

genetically modified crops and, 209, 209–210, 210

insect and herbicide resistance and, 210–211, 211

plant productivity and, 642

slash-and-burn, 672

AIDS. See Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS); HIV/AIDS

Airborne, 3

Alarm calling, 633

Alcohol. See Ethanol

Algae

brown, 555

green, 497, 497

Alleles, 184, 184, 279

changing frequencies of, evolution and, 325–326, 326, 328

determining, 289–290, 290

multiple allelism and, 295, 295–297, 297

Allopatric speciation, 416–417, 417, 418

Almas caviar, 87–88, 88

Altitude, temperatures and, 616–617

Altruistic behaviors, 373, 373, 373–379

kin selection and, 374–377, 375, 376, 378

reciprocal altruism and, 374, 377–378, 378, 379

American mink, 631

Amino acids, 68, 68

essential, 69, 69

in polypeptide chains, 70

Amino groups, 68, 68

Amish people, founder effect and, 329, 330

Amniocentesis, 265–266, 266

Amniotes, 476, 477

Amniotic eggs, evolution of, 475, 475

Amphibians, 476, 476, 476–477

Amphiuma means, DNA of, 184

Analogous traits, 425

Anaphase, 245

in meiosis, 253, 254, 254, 255

in mitosis, 245–246, 247

Anatomy, comparative, common evolutionary origins revealed by, 353, 353–354, 354

Ancrod, 650

Anecdotal observations, 27, 28

Angiosperms, 504, 508–513, 509

double fertilization and, 512, 512–513, 513

pollination of, 510, 510–511, 511

Animals, 446. See also specific animals

characteristics defining, 446, 446–447

invertebrate. See Invertebrates

key distinctions dividing, 448–449, 449, 450, 451

language in, 396–397

relationships with plants, 514–517

vertebrate. See Vertebrates

Annelids, 456, 458, 458–459

Antacids, digestion and food allergies and, 53–54

Antarctic ice cap, global warming and, 669, 670

Antarctic ozone hole, 675, 675

Antechinus, tradeoff between reproduction and survival in, 584

Anthers, 508, 509

Antibiotic resistance, 356, 357, 548, 548–549, 549

Antibiotics, from bacteria, 435

Ants

acacia trees and, 637–638

sex determination in, 262, 262

Anury, inheritance of, 291–292, 292

Apoptosis, 243

Aquaporins, 104

Arachnids, 464, 464

Archaea, 89, 433, 534, 550–552

contrasted with bacteria, 550, 550

in extreme environments, 436, 436

habitats of, 551, 551–552, 552

Archaeopteryx, 478, 479

Arctic ground squirrels, mate selection in, 386–387

Arctic ice cap, global warming and, 670, 670

Arthritis of the knee, arthroscopic surgery for, 19–20

Arthropods, 463, 463–465, 464

Arthroscopic surgery, for arthritis of the knee, 19–20

Artificial selection, 341

Ascomycota, 519, 519

Asexual reproduction, 235, 250

advantages of, 259, 259

bacterial, 539–540, 540, 541

by binary fission, 233, 234–235, 235, 540, 540

disadvantages of, 259

Asian flu, 560

Aspirin, alcohol metabolism and, 224

Atacama desert, 615–616

Atlantic salmon, 211

Atomic mass, 41

Atomic number, 41, 41–42

Atoms, 40, 40–43, 41

charged, as ions, 44, 44

electrons of. See Electrons

radioactive, 42

stability of, 43, 43–44

ATP. See Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)

Australian desert, 616

Australian social spider, altruistic behavior in, 373, 373

Australopithecines, 482, 483

Autism

genes responsible for, 298

MMR vaccine and, 28, 28–29

Avian influenza virus, 561

B

Baby boom, 595, 597

Bacilli, 538, 538

Bacillus thuringiensis, pesticides containing, 210–211, 211

Background extinctions, 430, 431, 658–659

Bacteria, 89, 433, 534, 538–549

antibiotic resistance of, 356, 357, 548, 548–549, 549

beneficial, 543, 543–544

biodiversity of, 434–435, 435

classification and structure of, 538, 538

contrasted with archaea, 550, 550

food contamination by, 564

Gram-positive and Gram-negative, 539

growth and reproduction of, 539–541, 540, 541

habitats of, 544–545

identification of, 539, 539

metabolic diversity among, 541–542, 542

methane consumption by, 652–653

nitrogen-fixing, 625–626

pathogenic, 545–547, 546

population growth of, 259, 259

Baldness, male-pattern, 300–301

Ball-and-stick models, 45

Base pairs, 180

Bases (in nucleic acids), 75–76, 180, 180, 181

Bases (solutions), 51, 51–53, 52, 53

Basidiomycota, 519, 519

Beech trees, tradeoff between reproduction and growth and, 584, 585

Bees

pollination by, 510

sex determination in, 262, 262

waggle dance of, 395–396, 396

Behavior, 367

Behavioral defenses, 633, 633

Behavioral Ecology, 22, 22

Behavioral traits, evolution of, 364–404

adaptive value of behavior and, 366, 366–368, 367

altruistic behaviors and, 373, 373–379

communication and, 395–397

complex behaviors and, 371, 371–372

environmental mismatches and, 379–380, 380

group selection and, 381, 381

innate behaviors and, 368, 368–369

kin selection and, 374–377, 375, 376, 378

learned behaviors and, 369, 369–370

reproductive investment and, 382–394

Belding’s ground squirrels, alarm calls of, 374–375, 375, 376

Beta-blockers, 98–99, 99

Bias, in experiments, 22, 22–23

Bilateral symmetry, 448, 448–449

Binary fission, 233, 234, 234–235, 235, 540, 540

Biodiversity, 404–443, 406, 650–657, 651

among archaea, 436, 436

among bacteria, 434–435, 435

among eukarya, 437, 437

of animals, 444–491. See also Animals; Invertebrates; Vertebrates

distribution of, 655–657, 655–657

evolutionary trees and, 420–425

macroevolution and, 426–431

of microbes, 534, 534–535

most valuable, protecting, 676, 676–677, 677

ocean ice and coastal estuary flooding and, 670

origin of life on earth and, 406–410

racial differences and, 438

reduction by deforestation, 672

reduction by extinction. See Extinctions

scales of, 654, 654–655

species and. See Species

strategies for preserving, 678, 678–679, 679

three domains of life and, 432–434, 433, 434

value of, 650–652, 650–652

Biodiversity hotspots, 656, 656–657, 657

Biofuels, 136, 136, 136–137

Biogeography, 351, 351, 351–352, 352

Biological literacy, 4, 4, 4–5

Biological species concept, 411, 412, 414–416, 415

Biology, 3, 3–4

conservation, 654, 654–655

molecular, common genetic sequences revealed by, 355, 355

unifying themes in, 31

Biomass, 622

Biomes, 611–613, 612, 612, 613

Biotechnology, 204, 204–207, 204–220

agricultural applications of, 208, 208–212

cloning and, 219, 219–220, 220

medical applications of, 215–218, 216

safety of genetically modified foods and, 212–214, 213

Biotic environment, 610, 611

Bipedalism, 482

Bird flu, 561

Birds, 477–478, 477–479. See also specific birds

parental investment in, 391, 392

reproductive output in, 383–384, 384

reptiles compared with, 478, 478

sex determination in, 262, 262

sexual dimorphism in, 393, 393

Birth weight, stabilizing selection and, 343, 343–344

Bison, 641

Bivalve mollusks, 459, 460, 460

I-2

Black widow spiders, 259, 259, 464

mate guarding in, 389, 389

Blind experimental design, 18

Blood

pH of, 52–53, 53

sharing of, by vampire bats, 377–378, 378

Blood doping, 216

Blood groups, inheritance of, 295, 295–297, 297

Blood sugar, 56, 56–57

Bluegill sunfish, paternity uncertainty in, 389–390

Body plan, innovations in, 448, 449

Body size, sexual dimorphism in, 394

Bond energy, 45

Bonds

covalent, 45, 45–46, 47

double, 46

electrons and, 43, 43–44, 44

hydrogen, 46–47, 47

ionic, 45, 46, 47

peptide, 70

Bonobos, 661, 661

Bornean orangutan, 411

Bottleneck, 329, 330, 331

Boyer, Herbert, 215

BRAC genes, breast cancer and, 197

Breast cancer, BRAC genes and, 197

Bribery, pollinators and, 510, 510–511

Bristlecone pine trees, longevity of, 589

Brown algae, 555

Brown recluse spider, 464

Brown tree snake, 664–665, 665

Bryophytes, 498, 498–500, 499, 500

Buffers, 52, 52–53, 53

Buffon, Georges, 319, 320

Bush crickets, male-female differences in selectiveness about sexual partners of, 384, 384–385

C

Cacao trees, fungi and, 524–525

California condor, 679

Calment, Jeanne Louise, 589

Calvin cycle, 144, 144, 152, 152, 152–153, 153

CAM photosynthesis, 155, 155–156

Camouflage, 632, 633

Cancer, 246

of breast, BRAC genes and, 197

cell division and, 246–249, 248, 249

gap junctions and, 110–111

metastasis of, 248, 248

of skin, sunscreen to prevent, 200–202

telomeres and, 233

treatment of, 248–249, 249

vitamin C and, 21, 25

Cane toad, 666, 666

Capsids, 557

Capsule, 539

Captive breeding programs, 679

Carbohydrates, 55, 55, 55–60

complex, 58, 58–59, 59

as energy source, 56, 56–59, 169, 169

indigestible, 59, 59–60, 60

simple, 55–56

Carbo-loading, 57, 57

Carbon

bonding of, 46

formation of molecules containing, 406, 407, 407

need to reduce emissions of, 671

Carbon cycle, 624, 624–625

Carbon dioxide, as greenhouse gas, 670

Carbon-13 (13C), 42

Carbon-14 (14C), 42

Carboxyl groups, 68, 68

Cardiovascular disease, cholesterol and, 107–108, 108

Carnivores, 620, 621

Carotenoids, 146

Carpels, 508, 509

Carriers, 291, 291–292

Carrying capacity (K), 576

for human population, 599–601, 599–601

Cartilaginous fishes, 473, 474

Catharanthus roseus, 650

CD markers, 100–101, 101

Cell cycle, 236

eukaryotic, 236, 236–238, 237

Cell division, 232–241. See also Meiosis; Mitosis

cancer and, 246–249, 248, 249

chromosome replication and, 238–241, 239, 240

chromosome structure and, 234, 234–235, 235

eukaryotic cell cycle and, 236, 236–238, 237

telomeres and, 232–233, 233

Cell membrane. See Plasma membrane

Cell theory, 15, 87, 87

Cell wall, 90, 124, 124–125, 127

Cell-cycle control system, 237, 237

Cells, 84–133, 86

active transport and, 106, 106

adaptation to environment, 117–118

bulk transport of particles and, 107–109, 107–109

cell theory and, 87, 87

connections between, 110–111, 111

diploid, 250, 251

eukaryotic. See Eukaryotic cells

first, formation of, 408–409, 409

haploid, 250, 251

osmosis and, 104, 104–105, 105

passive transport and, 102, 102–103, 103

plasma membrane bordering. See Plasma membrane

prokaryotic, 89, 89–90, 234, 234, 432

replacement of, 242, 242

reproductive. See Eggs; Gametes; Sperm

somatic, 236

Cellular respiration, 137, 137, 157, 157–166, 158

ATP synthesis and, 162–164, 162–164

glycolysis in, 158, 158–159

jet lag and, 165–166

Krebs cycle and, 160, 160–162, 161

Cellulose, 59, 59, 59–60, 60

Centipedes, 464

Central vacuole, 125

Centrioles, 245

Centromeres, 237, 244, 245

Cephalopods, 459, 460, 460–461, 461

CFCs. See Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)

C4 photosynthesis, 154, 154–155, 155

Chaparral, 612

Character displacement, 630, 630, 630–631

Charnier, Madeline, 263

Checkpoints, 237, 237, 237–238

Cheetahs, bottleneck effect and, 329, 330, 331

Chelicerates, 464, 464

Chemical defenses, of plants, 516, 516, 632, 632

Chemical energy, 138, 138, 138–139

Chemical reactions

facilitation by enzymes, 72, 72

regulation by enzymes, 73, 73–74, 74

Chemical signals, 395

Chemical-induced mutations, 200

Chemolithotrophs, 541, 541–542, 542

Chemoorganotrophs, 541, 542

Chemotherapy, 248–249, 249

Chiasmata, 257, 257

Chickens, naked, 212, 214

Child abuse, kin selection and, 377

Chimpanzees, similarity of human and chimpanzee genes and, 481–482

Chinook salmon, 211

Chitin, 59, 59

Chlamydia, 547

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), 674, 674, 675, 675–676

Chlorophyll, 145

light absorption by, 146–147, 147

photons and, 148, 148–149

Chlorophyll a, 146, 147, 147, 149–150

Chlorophyll b, 146, 147, 147

Chloroplasts, 92, 126, 126, 126–127, 127, 145, 145

Chocolate, fungi and, 524–525

Cholera, 545, 546

Cholesterol, 65, 65, 97

hypercholesterolemia and, 107–108, 108

Chordata, 470, 471, 472. See also Vertebrates

Chorionic villus sampling (CVS), 266

Chromatids, 244, 245

Chromatin, 113, 113, 234

Chromosomal aberrations, 198, 199

Chromosomes, 183, 234

eukaryotic, 234, 234

incorrect numbers of, 265–269

prokaryotic, 234, 234

replication of, 234–235, 235, 238–241, 239, 240, 244, 252, 252–253, 254

sex. See Sex chromosomes

Chytridiomycota, 519

Cilia, 115, 115

Cinderella syndrome, 377

Clams, 460, 460

Class performance, access to textbook and, 25–27, 26

Classes, 413, 414

Clever Hans (horse), 18, 18

Climate change. See also Global warming; Rainfall; Weather

greenhouse gases and, 669, 669–671, 670

Climax communities, 640

Clone libraries, 207, 207

Clones, 206

Cloning, 206, 206–207, 219, 219–220, 220

Clorox Corporation, 545

Cnidarians, 454, 454–456, 455

Cnidocytes, 454, 455

Cocci, 538, 538

Codes, 182

Codominance, 294, 294

Codon table, 191, 191, 193

Codons, 191

Coevolution, 629, 629, 629–630

Cohen, Stanley, 215

Cohesiveness, of water, 48, 48–49, 49

Coho salmon, disruptive selection and, 344, 344

Cohorts, 595

Cold stress, fat cells and, 117–118

Coleochaetes, 497, 497

Colonization, adaptive radiations and, 429, 429

Colonizers, 639

Color blindness, 299–300, 300

Coloration, sexual dimorphism in, 394

Commensalism, 636, 636, 637

Common cold, 559

echinacea and, 8, 9, 10, 11, 11–12, 13–14

Communication, 395, 395–397

honest signals in, 397, 397

language and, 396, 396

signal types in, 395–396, 396

Communities, 573, 610, 611

change over time, 639–640, 640

climax, 640

competition and, 630, 630–631, 631

keystone species in, 641, 641

niches in, 628, 628–629

Comparative anatomy, common evolutionary origins revealed by, 353, 353–354, 354

Competitive exclusion, 630, 630

Competitive inhibitors, 73

Competitors, 640

Complementarity, 238, 238–239, 239

Complete metamorphosis, 467, 468

Complex carbohydrates, 58, 58, 58–59

Compounds

bonds in, 45–47

ionic, 45, 46

Concentration gradients, 102

Condensation, 244

Cones, of gymnosperms, 504, 506

Coniferous forests, 612

Conifers, 507, 507

Conjugation, 540, 541

Conservation, 674–679

prioritizing species to preserve, 676, 676–677, 677

reversing ozone zone depletion and, 674, 674–676, 675

strategies for preserving biodiversity and, 678, 678–679, 679

Conservation biology, 654, 654, 654–655

Consumer product labeling, 27–28

Consumers, energy flows from producers to, 620–622, 621

Control group, 16

Convergent evolution, 354, 354, 424, 424, 424–425, 425

Copulatory plugs, 388

Coral bleaching, 455, 455

Coral reefs, 455, 613, 613, 656–657, 657

Corals, 454, 454–455, 455

Corn, genetically modified, 210, 210

Correlation, positive, 27

Courtship rituals, 386, 387

Covalent bonds, 45, 45, 45–46, 47

Cows, selection for milk production ability, 342, 342–343

Crab lice, 547

Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, 558

Crick, Francis, 180, 180, 238

Critical experiments, 11, 11–13, 12

Crops. See Agriculture

Crosses, 282

Crossing over, 253, 257, 257

Crustaceans, 464, 464–465

C3 photosynthesis, 154

Cultural services, 651, 652

Cuticle, 498

Cuvier, Georges, 319, 320

CVS. See Chorionic villus sampling (CVS)

Cyanobacteria, 542

Cycads, 505

Cystic fibrosis, 98, 98

Cytokinesis, 237, 246, 254, 255

Cytoplasm, 90, 114

Cytoskeleton, 114, 114, 114–115, 115, 127

Cytosol, 90

D

Dannon yogurt, 3

Darwin, Charles

on adaptation, 447

I-3

on altruistic behaviors, 373–374

on classification of species, 420–421

early life of, 321

influences on thought of, 320, 321, 323

monk parakeets and, 664

natural selection and, 325–326

observations on Galápagos Islands, 321–322, 322

The Origin of Species and. See The Origin of Species (Darwin)

on pace of evolution, 428

society inhabited by, 319–320

theory of evolution of, 323, 323–324, 324, 348

voyage on the Beagle, 321, 321–322

“warm little pond” of, 406, 407, 409

Darwin, Erasmus, 320

Data points, 24, 24

Daughter cells, 235, 235, 243, 244

Decomposers, 521, 621, 621, 621–622

Deep oceans, 657

Deforestation

reversibility of, 662

of tropical rain forests, 661, 661, 671–673, 671–673

Demographic transitions, 597, 597–598, 598

Denaturation of proteins, 71, 71

Density-dependent factors, 576

Density-independent factors, 576, 576–577

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), 75, 180

bacterial, 540

complementarity of, 238–239, 239

eukaryotic, 234, 234

evolutionary trees based on, 423, 423–424

function of, 179

genes and, 182–184, 182–184

genetic ancestry testing and, 486

genetic sequences linking all life forms and, 355, 355

as individual identifier, 178, 178–179, 179

mitochondrial, 117

non-coding (junk), 184–185, 185, 186

in nucleus, 112

prokaryotic, 234, 234

proofreading and repair of, 240

replication of, 238–241, 239, 240

structure of, 76, 76–77, 179–181, 180, 181, 238–239, 239

telomeres and, 232–233, 233

transcription and, 187, 187, 188–190, 189

viral, 557, 558, 558

Dependent variables, 24, 24, 24

Deserts, 612, 613

formation of, 615, 615–616

rain shadows and, 616

Desmosomes, 110, 111

Detrivores, 621, 621, 621–622

Deuterostomes, 449

Diabetes

gestational, 376, 376–377

type 1, treatment of, 215

Diaea ergandros, altruistic behavior in, 373, 373

Diatoms, 555, 555

Diet

complete, 169, 169

lipids in, 62, 62–64, 64–65

proteins in, 68–69, 69

Dietary fiber, 60, 60

Differential reproductive success, 333

natural selection and, 333, 333–334

Diffusion, 102, 102, 102–103, 103

Digestion, antacids and, 53–54

Dihybrid cross, 305

Dihybrid traits, 304–305, 305, 305

Dinosaurs, extinction of, 430

Dipeptides, 90

Diploid cells, 250, 251

in bryophytes, 499, 499, 500

in ferns, 501, 502, 502

of fungi, 520, 520

Directional selection, 342, 342, 342–343, 343, 344–346

Disaccharides, 58, 58–59

Discontinuous replication, 241

Diseases and genetic disorders

anury, 291–292, 292

arthritis, 19–20

autism, 28, 28–29, 298

bacterial, 435, 545–547, 546

cardiovascular, cholesterol and, 107–108, 108

cholera, 545, 546

color blindness, 299–300, 300

common cold, 8, 9, 10, 11, 11–12, 13–14, 559

Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, 558

cystic fibrosis, 98, 98

Down syndrome, 265–267, 265–267

faulty membranes causing, 98, 98–99, 99

fish odor syndrome, 278, 279, 279

gene therapy for, 217–218

genital herpes, 547, 559

gestational diabetes, 376, 376–377

global climate change and, 671

Hutchinson-Gilford progeria syndrome, 233

influenza, 559, 559–561, 561

Klinefelter syndrome, 268, 268

lactose intolerance, 74

mad cow disease, 558

malaria, 556, 556

mutations and, 203, 203

oral herpes, 559

parasitic, 556, 556

phenylketonuria, 302, 302

polydactyly, 329, 330

rabies, 635, 635–636

severe acute respiratory syndrome, 559, 560

sexually transmitted, 546–547, 547. See also HIV/AIDS

sickle-cell disease, 298, 299

stomach ulcers, 16–18, 17

Tay-Sachs disease, 119, 203, 217, 217, 289, 289

transport protein defects and, 103

treatment of, biotechnology and, 215–218, 216

Turner syndrome, 268, 268

type 1 diabetes, 215

viral, 559, 559–560. See also specific disorders

XXX females, 268, 269

XXY males, 268, 268–269

Dispersers, 639, 640

Disruptive selection, 344, 344

DNA. See Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

DNA bases, 75, 75–76

DNA fingerprinting, 220–223, 221, 222

DNA helicase, 239

DNA polymerase, 240

DNA probes, 207, 207, 207–208

DNA synthesis phase, 237

DNA viruses, 559

Dodder, 495, 495

Dolly (sheep), 219

Dolomedes triton, 48

Domains, 413, 414

Dominant traits, 284, 284

codominance and, 294, 294

incomplete dominance and, 293–294, 294

Dorsal hollow nerve cord, 470, 471

Double bonds, 46

Double fertilization, 512, 512, 512–513, 513

Double helix, 76, 76, 180, 181

Double-blind experimental design, 18

Douglas firs, 507

Down, John Langdon, 266

Down syndrome, 265–267, 265–267

DRD4 gene, 308

Drosophila pseudoobscura, 417

Drugs

altering cell membrane functioning, 98–99, 99

antibiotic, 435. See also Antibiotic resistance

beta-blockers, 98–99, 99

from plants, 516

smooth endoplasmic reticulum and tolerance to, 122

sources of, 650, 650

valproic acid with anti-HIV drugs, 21, 21

E

Earthworms, 458, 458–459

Echidnas, 480, 480

Echinacea, common cold and, 8, 9, 10, 11–12, 13–14

Echinoderms, 468–469, 469

Ecological footprint, 600

Ecology, 572, 572–573, 573

population perspective in, 573–574, 574. See also Population ecology

Ecosystem services, 651, 652

Ecosystems, 573, 610, 610–613

biomes, 611–613, 612, 613

chemical cycles in, 624–627, 624–627

elements of, 610–611, 611

energy flows in, 620–622, 621

energy pyramids and, 622–623, 623

reversibility of disturbances to, 662–663, 663

Ectoparasites, 634, 635

Ectotherms, 478

Eggs. See also Gametes

amniotic, evolution of, 475, 475

as cells, 87

production in meiosis, 255–256, 256

El Niño, 618, 618–619, 619

Electromagnetic spectrum, 146, 146

Electron shells, 43, 43–44

Electron transport chain, 150, 151

Electrons, 41

bonding and, 43, 43–44, 44

Elements, 40, 40

in human body, 42, 43

number of protons in, 41, 41–42, 42

Elephant seals

polygamy among, 391, 391

sexual dimorphism in, 393, 393

Embryology, common evolutionary origins revealed by, 352–353, 353

Empirical knowledge, 6

Endangered species, 660, 677

Endangered Species Act (ESA), 677

Endemic species, 657

Endocytosis, 107, 107–108, 108

Endomembrane system, 120, 120, 120–122, 121

Endoparasites, 634, 635

Endosperm, 503

Endosymbiosis theory, 91, 91–93, 93

Endotherms, 478

Energy, 134–175, 137

activation, 72

ATP and. See Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)

bond, 45

from carbohydrates, 56, 56–59, 169, 169

cellular respiration and. See Cellular respiration

chemical, 138, 138–139

conversion of, 139, 139–140, 140

from fats, 169, 169

fuel sources for, 169, 169

kinetic, 138, 138

light. See Light energy

from lipids, 62, 63

photosynthesis and. See Photosynthesis

potential, 138, 138

production without oxygen, 167, 167–168, 168

from proteins, 169, 169

requirement for, 136, 136–137, 137

Energy flows, from producers to consumers, 620–622, 621

Energy pyramids, 622, 622–623, 623

Environment

abiotic, 611, 611

adaptation to, through natural selection, 338–347

biotic, 610, 611

cellular adaptation to, 117–118

extreme, archaea living in, 436, 436

global warming and. See Global warming

human activities and. See Human activities

interaction with genes, 302, 302–303, 303

mismatched, behaviors and, 379–380, 380

sex determination in turtles and, 263–264

Environmental disturbance, species richness and, 656, 656

Environmental intervention, unintended consequences of, 637–638

Enzymatic proteins, 97

Enzymes, 68, 72–74

DNA replication and, 239, 240

facilitation of chemical reactions by, 72, 72

lysosomes and, 119

membrane, 97, 97

non-functioning, 74, 74

regulation of reactions by, 73, 73–74, 74

restriction, 205, 205

Epibatidine, 650

Epipedobates tricolor, 650

EPO. See Erythropoietin (EPO)

Equus quagga, 415

Erie, Lake, 627

Erosion, reduction by non-vascular plants, 500, 500

Erwin, Terry, 465–466

Erythropoietin (EPO), production of, 216

ESA. See Endangered Species Act (ESA)

Escaping, 633, 633

Escherichia coli, 435, 538

generation time of, 539

Essay on the Principle of Population (Malthus), 323

Essential amino acids, 69, 69

Estrogen, 65–66, 66

Estuaries, 613, 613

Ethanol, 168

aspirin and, 224

response to, genetics and, 202–203, 203

Eucritta melanolimnetes, 413

Eukarya, 433, 437, 437. See also Animals; Invertebrates; Vertebrates

Eukaryotes, 89, 534

cell division in, 233

first, 553, 553–554

gene control in, 196, 196

I-4

Eukaryotic cells, 89, 90–93, 112–127, 432

adaptation to environment, 117–118

cell cycle of, 236, 236–238, 237

cell wall of, 124, 124–125

chloroplasts of, 126, 126–127, 127

chromosomes of, 234, 234

cytoplasm of, 114

cytoskeleton of, 114, 114–115, 115

distinguishing features of, 90, 91

endomembrane system of, 120, 120–122, 121

endosymbiosis and, 91–93, 93

Golgi apparatus of, 122–123, 123

invagination and, 93, 93

lysosomes of, 118–119, 119

mitochondria of, 115–117, 116

nucleus of, 112, 112–113, 113

structure of, 90–91, 90–92

vacuoles of, 125, 125–126

European mink, 631

Eutrophication, 626, 626–627

Evolution, 314–404, 317

adaptive radiations and, 429, 429

of amniotic egg, 475, 475

of behavior. See Behavioral traits, evolution of

changing allele frequencies and, 325–326, 326

common genetic sequences linking all life forms and, 355, 355

comparative anatomy and embryology and, 352–354, 353, 354

convergent, 354, 354, 424, 424–425, 425

Darwin’s theory of, 323, 323–324, 324, 348

of eukaryotes, 91–93, 93

evidence for, 348–357

of fins, 473, 473

fossil record of, 348–350, 349, 350

genetic drift and, 328–331, 329, 330

of horses, 349–350, 350

of humans, 481, 481–485, 482, 484

of jaws, 473, 474

of limbs, 475, 475

of lungs, 475, 475

macro. See Macroevolution

mechanisms of, 325–337

micro, 426–427, 427

migration and, 331, 331

misconceptions about, 358

movement from water to land and, 474–475, 475

multigenerational experiments and observations and, 356, 356–357, 357

mutation and, 326–328, 327

natural selection and. See Natural selection

ongoing nature of, 316, 316–318, 318

power of, 31

of primates, 481, 481–483, 482

recessive traits and, 335–337, 336

species distributions and, 351, 351–352, 352

species richness and, 656, 656

theory of, by natural selection, 15

of vertebrae, 475, 475

Evolutionary trees, 420, 420–425

ancestor-descendent relationships shown by, 421–424, 422

constructing by comparing similarities and differences among organisms, 422–424, 423

convergent evolution and, 424, 424–425, 425

DNA-based, 423, 423–424

nodes on, 421–422

Exocytosis, 107, 108–109, 109

Exoskeleton, 463

Exotic species, 664

introduction of, 661, 664–666, 664–666, 680

Experimental group, 16

Experiments, 16–22

bias in, 22, 22–23

critical, 11–13, 12

designing, 16–19

elements common to, 16

multigeneration, 356, 356–357, 357

reproducible and repeatable, 21, 21–22

Exponential growth, 575

Extinctions, 430, 658–661

background, 430, 431, 658–659

causes of, 658, 658–660, 659

current, 660–661, 661

mass, 429, 429, 430, 430–431, 431, 658–659

Extremophiles, 551

Eyewitness identification

DNA analysis and, 178, 178–179, 179

reliability of, 8, 8, 10, 11, 13

F

Facilitated diffusion, 103, 103

Fake fats, 65

Familial hypercholesterolemia, 107–108, 108

Families, 413, 414

Family resemblance, 278–287

Fast flushers, 202–203, 203

Fat cells, cold stress and, 117–118

Fats

energy from, 169, 169

fake, 65

glucose conversion to, 57, 57

hydrogenation of, 64, 64, 78

saturated, 62, 63, 64

trans, 64

unsaturated, 63, 64

Feathers, 478, 479

Females, 382

Fermentation, 168, 168

Ferns, 501, 501–502, 502

Fertilization, 250

double, 512, 512–513, 513

pollinators and, 510, 510–511, 511

Fiber, dietary, 60, 60

Fighting back, 633, 633

Filaments, 508, 509

Finches, of Galápagos Islands, 417, 418, 429

Fins, evolution of, 473, 473

Firs, 504, 505, 506, 506, 507

First law of thermodynamics, 140

Fish odor syndrome, 278, 279, 279

Fishes

cartilaginous, 473, 474

evolution of jaws and fins in, 473, 473–474, 474

lobe-finned, 474, 474

movement onto land, 474–475, 475

ray-finned, 473–474, 474

Fishing spider, 48

Fitness, 338, 338–339, 339

inclusive, 376

Fixation, 328

Fixed action patterns, 368, 368, 368–369

Flagella, 90, 115, 115

Flagship species, 678–679

Flatworms, 456, 456–457, 457

Fleming, Alexander, 521–522

Fleshy fruits, 515

seed dispersal and, 514, 514–515

Flight

in insects, 467

in invertebrates, 467, 467

Flowers, 508, 509

feeding and protecting in a vase, 170

Fluid mosaics, 96, 96

FMO3 gene, 278, 279, 279

Food, contamination by bacteria, 564

Food allergies, antacids and, 53–54

Food chains, 621, 621–622

inefficiency of, 622–623, 623

Food labeling, 27–28

Food webs, 621, 621

Ford, Gerald, 559

Forests

acid precipitation and, 668, 668

coniferous, 612

destruction of. See Deforestation

rain. See Tropical rain forests

seasonal, tropical, 612, 613

temperate deciduous, 612

Fossil fuels, 136

Fossils, 348, 348–350, 349

of australopithecines, 482, 483

of cells, 408, 408

difficulties classifying, 415, 415

Founder effect, 329, 330

Franklin, Rosalind, 180

Freckles, red hair and, 304, 306, 306–307

Friendly behaviors, in humans, 398

Frogs

epibatidine from, 650

life cycle of, 476, 477

mate guarding in, 388

Fructose, 56

Fruit flies

allopatric speciation of, 417

colonization by, 429

life extension in, 593–594, 594

starvation-resistant, 316, 316–317, 317, 357

Fruits, seed dispersal and, 514, 514–515

Fuels

biofuels, 136, 136–137

fossil, 136

Fundamental niche, 628, 629

Fungi, 518–525

beneficial, 521–522, 524–525

habitats of, 521, 521

life cycle of, 520, 520

mycorrhizal, 522, 522–524, 523

structure of, 520–521, 521

G

G0, 237

G1. See Gap 1 (G1)

G1/S checkpoint, 237, 237–238

G2. See Gap 2 (G2)

G2/M checkpoint, 237, 238

Galápagos Islands

Darwin’s observations on, 321–322, 322

finch species of, 417, 418, 429

Gametes, 236

male versus female, 255, 255–256, 256, 383, 513, 513

production by meiosis, 252, 252–256, 254–256

Gametophytes, 499, 499, 500

in ferns, 501, 502, 502

Gap 1 (G1), 237

Gap 2 (G2), 237

Gap junctions, 110, 110–111, 111

Garciaparra, Nomar, 5

Garlic mustard, 523

Garter snakes, mate guarding in, 388

Gastric freezing, 16–18, 17

Gastropods, 459, 459–460, 460

Geek theory of autism, 298

Geese, egg retrieval in, 368, 368–369, 371, 371–372

Gene expression, 194

control of, 194–195

Gene flow, 331

as mechanism of evolution, 331, 331

Gene libraries, 207, 207

Gene regulation, 193–196, 194, 194–196

Gene therapy, 217–218, 218

Genes, 182–184, 183, 183, 184

alleles and. See Alleles

autism and, 298

function of, 186–187, 187

for height, 297, 297

independent assortment of, 304–305, 305

interaction with environment, 302, 302–303, 303

linked, 304, 306, 306–307

with more than two alleles, 295, 295–297, 297

pedigrees and, 291, 291–292, 292

regulatory, 195

Genetic code, 191, 191, 193

damage to, 197–200, 198, 199

Genetic disorders. See Diseases and genetic disorders

Genetic diversity, loss of, genetic engineering and, 214

Genetic drift, 328, 328–331, 329, 330

Genetic engineering, 204, 208, 208, 208–212

Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act, 217

Genetic recombination, 253

Genetically modified organisms (GMOs), 209

safety of, 212–214, 213

Genetics, 276–313

ancestry testing and, 486

family resemblance and, 278–287

genetic sequences linking all life forms and, 355, 355

genotype translation into phenotype and, 293–303

linked genes and, 304–307

Mendel’s experiments in, 282–285

mutation and, 326–328, 327

probability and chance and, 288–292

racial differences and, 438

Genital herpes, 547, 559

Genomes, 182, 182–183, 183

Genotype, 187, 286

phenotype and, 286, 286–287, 287

translation into phenotype, 293–303

Genus, 413

Geographic isolation

speciation with, 416–417, 418

speciation without, 417–418, 419

Geographic range, extinction risk and, 659, 659–660

Gestational diabetes, 376, 376–377

Ghost pipe, 523, 523

Giant kelp, 555

Ginkgo, 505

Global warming

coral reefs and, 455

greenhouse gases and, 669, 669–671, 670

Glucose, 56, 56–57

Glycerol, 95

in phospholipids, 95

Glycine, 68

Glycogen, 56–57, 57

Glycolysis, 158, 158, 158–159, 161

Glycoproteins, 70

Glyptodonts, 322, 322

GMOs. See Genetically modified organisms (GMOs)

Gnetophytes, 505

Golden lion tamarin, 411

Golden rice, 209, 209–210, 210

Golgi apparatus, 122, 122–123, 123, 127

I-5

Gonads, 252

Gonorrhea, 547

Gram, Hans Christian, 539

Gram stains, 539, 539

Grant, Peter, 340

Grant, Rosemary, 340

Graphs, 23, 23–24, 24

Grass, multigeneration observation of, 356, 356

Great Barrier Reef, 455

Great Basin bristlecone pines, 507

Great Dying, 430, 431

Green algae, 497, 497

Greenhouse gases, 669, 669–671, 670

increase in, deforestation and, 672

Greenland glacier, global warming and, 670

Group selection, 381, 381

Growth

by molting versus adding to body in continuous manner, 449, 451

need for new cells and, 242, 242

reproduction and, 584, 585

Growth rate, 575

Guam, brown tree snake and, 664–665, 665

Guinea pigs, hazard factor and, 593

Gulf of Mexico

dead zone in, 642

oil spill in, 652–653

Gulf Stream, 618

Gymnosperms, 504, 505, 506, 506, 507, 507

H

Habitat, 611, 611

loss and degradation of, due to human activity, 661, 661

Habitat conservation, 678, 678

Habitat restoration, 679

Habitat services, 651, 652

Habitat tolerance, extinction risk and, 660

Hagfishes, 473

Hair, 479

color and texture of, shaving and, 9, 10, 11, 12, 14

male-pattern baldness and, 300–301

of mammals, 479

red, freckles and, 304, 306, 306–307

texture of, protein and, 71, 71

Halophiles, 436

Hamilton, W. D., 375

Hanging flies, mate selection in, 387

Haploid cells, 250, 251

in bryophytes, 499, 499, 500

in ferns, 501, 502, 502

of fungi, 520, 520

Hardy, G. H., 335

Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium, 336, 337

Hardy-Weinberg Law, 335–337, 336

Hawn, Goldie, 333

Hazard factor, determinants of, 592, 592–593

HbS allele, 556

Heat capacity, of water, 49–50, 50

Height genes, 297, 297

Heliconius, 416

Hemoglobin, gene coding for, evolution and, 355, 355

Herbivores, 620, 621

Herbs, 639

Heredity, 280. See also Genetics

Heritability, 333

natural selection and, 332–333, 333

Hermaphrodites, 262

Hermaphroditism, 269

Herpes

genital, 547, 559

oral, 559

Heterozygous genotype, 285

HGH. See Human growth hormone (HGH)

Hiding, 633, 633

Hierarchical organization, of life, 31

Himalayan rabbits, 302–303, 303

Histones, 234

HIV/AIDS, 547

difficulty of controlling, 561–563, 562, 563

mode of infection by HIV and, 100–101, 101

pandemic of, 559

Homer, 280

Homo erectus, 482, 483, 484

Homo ergaster, 482

Homo floresiensis, 482, 483, 484

Homo habilis, 482

Homo heidelbergensis, 415

Homo neanderthalensis, 482, 483

Homo sapiens, 413, 415, 482, 484. See also Humans

Homologous features, 425

Homologous pairs, 252, 252, 253, 254

crossing over and, 257, 257

Homologous structures, 353, 353

Homozygous genotype, 285

Honest signals, 397, 397

Honeybees, waggle dance of, 395–396, 396

Hong Kong flu, 560

Hooke, Robert, 86

Horizontal gene transfer, 433

Hormones

estrogen, 65–66, 66

human growth hormone production, 215–216, 216

steroid, 65–66, 66

testosterone, 65–66, 66, 67

Horses, evolutionary history of, 349–350, 350

Horsetails, 501, 501–502

Hosts, 556, 634

House flies, mate guarding in, 388

Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest, 611

Hudson, Kate, 333

Hudson’s Bay Company, 579

Human activities, 662–673

acid rain and, 666–668, 667, 668

deforestation and, 671–673, 671–673

greenhouse gases and, 669, 669–671, 670

introduction of non-native species and, 664–666, 664–666, 680

mass extinction due to, 660–661, 661

reversibility of ecosystem disturbances due to, 662–663, 663

Human body

elements in, 42, 43

pH and, 52–53, 53

Human Genome Project, 76

Human growth hormone (HGH), production of, 215–216, 216

Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), 561. See also HIV/AIDS

Human population, 595–602

age distribution of, 595

demographic transitions and, 597–598, 598

growth of, 595–601

limit to, 599–601, 599–601

Humans

babies’ fear of snakes and, 370, 370

current mass extinction due to activity of, 660–661, 661

evolution of, 481, 481–485, 482, 484

friendly behaviors in, 398

initial migration out of Africa, 483–485, 484

mating systems of, 392, 392–393

number of offspring produced by, 382

sex determination in, 260, 260–261, 261

similarity of human and chimpanzee genes and, 481–482

Hutchinson-Gilford progeria syndrome, 233

Hybrid individuals, 413

Hybridization, 416

difficulties classifying species and, 415, 416

Hydrogen

bonding of, 45

formation of molecules containing, 406, 407, 407

Hydrogen bonds, 46, 46–47, 47

in water, 48, 48–49

Hydrophilic molecules, 62, 95, 95

Hydrophobic molecules, 62, 95, 95

Hypertonic solutions, 104, 104, 105

Hyphae, 519

Hypotheses, 9

formulating, 9–10, 10

null, 9–10

testable predictions and, 10–11, 11

theory and, 15

Hypotonic solutions, 104, 104, 105

I

Ice

density of, 50, 50

origin of life in, 409–410

Ice caps, 612

Ice caps, global warming and, 669, 670 670

Illness. See Diseases and genetic disorders

Inclusive fitness, 376

Incomplete dominance, 293, 293–294, 294

Incomplete metamorphosis, 467, 468

Independent variables, 24, 24, 24

Indicator species, 679

Individual organisms, 573

Influenza A virus, 560–561, 561

Influenza pandemics, 559, 559–560

Inheritance, 333

Inhibitors, 73, 73, 73–74

Innate behaviors, 368, 368, 368–369

Insect wings, evolution of, 347, 347

Insects, 464, 465. See also specific insects

flight in, 467

metamorphosis in, 467, 467–468

plants eating, 517, 517

Instincts, 368, 368, 368–369

Insulin, exocytosis and, 108–109, 109

Intelligence, of invertebrates, 462, 462

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 670

Intermediate filaments, 114, 114

Intermembrane space, 117

Interphase, 236, 236, 237, 245

meiosis and, 252–253, 254

Intersex individuals, 269

Intestinal gas, 552, 552

Introduced species, 664, 664–666, 664–666

Introns, 185

Invagination, 93, 93

Invasive species, 664, 664–666, 664–666

Invertebrates, 450, 451, 452–465, 467–469

arthropods, 463, 463–465, 464

cnidarians, 454, 454–456, 455

echinoderms, 468–469, 469

flight in, 467, 467

intelligence of, 462, 462

metamorphosis in, 467, 467–468

molluscs, 459–461, 460, 461

sponges, 452, 452–453

worms, 456–459, 457, 458

Ionic bonds, 45, 46, 47

Ionic compounds, 45, 46

Ions, 44, 44

Islands, 657, 657

Isotonic solutions, 104, 104

Isotopes, 42, 42

J

Jaws, evolution of, 473, 474

Jeffreys, Alec, 220

Jellyfishes, 454, 454, 456

Jet lag, NADH and, 165–166

K

Kalahari Desert, 616

Karyotype, 265, 265–266, 266

Kelp, 554, 555

Keystone species, 641, 641, 679

Kin selection, 374, 374–377, 375, 376, 378

Kinetic energy, 138, 138

Kingdoms, 413, 414

Kittiwake gull, reproductive output in, 384

Klinefelter syndrome, 268, 268

Knowles, Beyonce, 411

Korean flu, 560

Krebs cycle, 160, 160, 160–162, 161

L

La Niña, 619, 619

lac operon, 194, 195, 195–196

Lactation, 383

Lactobacillus acidophilus, 543, 543–544

Lactose intolerance, 74

Lagging strand, 241

Lakes, 613, 613

acid precipitation and, 668

Lamarck, Jean-Baptiste, 319, 320

Lampreys, 473

Lancelets, 471, 472

Landscape conservation, 678

Language, 396, 396, 396–397

Large weevil, 610, 610

Larva, 467, 467

Law of segregation, 284–285, 285, 285

Leading strand, 240, 240–241

Learned behaviors, 369, 369–370

Learning, 369

prepared, 370

Leeches, 459

Lemmings, 579

Lewis models, 45

Lichens, 524, 639

Life, 406

events following origin of, 433–434, 434

origin of, 406–410

water and, 49–51

Life histories, 582, 582–588

life tables and survivorship curves and, 587, 587–588, 588

natural selection and, 582–584, 583, 584

tradeoffs between growth, reproduction, and longevity and, 584–586, 585

Life tables, 587, 587

Life-dinner hypothesis, 635

Light energy, 146, 146, 146–147, 147

capture as chemical energy, 149–150, 149–151, 152

Limbs, evolution of, 475, 475

Linked genes, 304, 306, 306, 306–307

Linnaeus, Carolus, 413, 420, 432

Lions, kin selection in, 377

Lipids, 61, 61, 61–66

in diet, 62, 62–64, 64–65

regulating growth and development, 65, 65–66, 66

Lipoproteins, 70

I-6

Living organisms and systems, common characteristics of, 31

Living systems, pH and, 51–53, 52, 53

Lobe-finned fishes, 474, 474

Loci, 183

Locust swarms, 578, 578

Logistic growth, 576, 577

Loneliness, health consequences of, 194

Longevity, 589–590

determinants of, 592, 592–593

tradeoff with reproduction, 2

Lucy (australopithecine), 482, 483

Luehea seemannii, 465, 676

Lungs, evolution of, 475, 475

Lyell, Charles, 319, 320, 323

Lysosomes, 118, 118–119, 119, 127

M

M phase. See Mitotic phase (M phase)

Macroevolution, 426, 426, 426–431, 427

adaptive radiations and, 428–429, 429

mass extinctions and, 430, 430–431, 431

uneven pace of evolution and, 427–428, 428

Macromolecules, 55

Mad cow disease, 558

Madagascar periwinkle, 650

Malaria, 556, 556

Malayan pit viper, 650

Male-pattern baldness, 300–301

Males, 382

Malthus, Thomas, 323

Mammals, 479, 479–480, 480

Mammary glands, 479

Marsupials, 480, 480

Martha (passenger pigeon), 658, 658

Mass, 41

Mass extinctions, 429, 429, 430, 430, 430–431, 431, 658–659

current, 660–661, 661

Mate guarding, 388, 388, 388–390, 389

Mating systems, 391, 391, 391–393, 392

Maximum sustainable yield, 580, 580, 580–581, 581

Mechanical defenses, 632, 632

Meiosis, 233, 250, 250–259

gamete production by, 252, 252–256, 254–256

sexual reproduction and, 250–251, 251, 258–259

variation created by, 257, 257

Membrane enzymes, 97, 97

Mendel, Gregor, 282–285, 303, 307, 368

Mendel’s law of independent assortment, 304–305, 305, 305

Mendel’s law of segregation, 284–285, 285, 285

Messenger RNA (mRNA), 187

bacterial, 540

transcription and, 188–190, 189

translation and, 190–191, 190–192, 193

Metabolic pathways, 72

Metabolic plasmids, 540

Metabolism, 72

Metamorphosis, 467, 467–468

Metaphase, 245

in meiosis, 253, 254, 254

in mitosis, 245, 246

Metastasis, 248, 248

Methane

bonds in, 45, 46

consumption by bacteria, 652–653

as greenhouse gas, 670

Methanogens, 436

Methuselah tree, 507

Methyl jasmonate (MJ), 516–517

Microbes, 432, 534. See also Archaea; Bacteria; Protists; Viruses

abundance of, 535, 536–537, 537

diversity of, 534, 534–535

habitats of, 535–536, 536

normal flora, 543

size of, 535, 536

Microevolution, 426, 426–427, 427

Microfilaments, 114, 114

Microspheres, 409

Microsporidia, 519, 519

Microtubules, 114, 114, 245

Migration, 331

as mechanism of evolution, 331, 331

Milk of Magnesia, osmosis and, 105

Miller, Stanley, 407, 407, 409

Millipedes, 464, 464

Mimicry, 632, 632–633

Mismatches, 380

Mitochondria, 91–92, 92, 93, 115, 115–117, 116, 127

DNA of, 117

structure of, 162, 162

Mitochondrial matrix, 117, 162, 162–163

Mitosis, 233, 237, 242–249

cancer and, 246–249, 248, 249

events preceding, 243–244, 244, 245

need for, 242, 242–243

rate of, 243, 243

steps in, 245–246, 246–247

Mitotic phase (M phase), 236, 236, 236–238, 237

MJ. See Methyl jasmonate (MJ)

MMR vaccine, autism and, 28, 28–29

Mojave Desert, 616

Molecular biology, common genetic sequences revealed by, 355, 355

Molecular structure, models representing, 45

Molecules, 45

bonds in, 45–47

hydrophobic and hydrophilic, 62

nonpolar, 51

organic, formation of, 406, 407, 407

passive transport across membranes, 102, 102–103, 103

polar, 47

self-replicating, formation of, 408, 408

Molluscs, 459–461, 460, 461

Monk parakeets, 664, 664

Monkeys, fear of snakes in, 369, 369

Monogamy, 391, 392, 392

Monophyletic groups, 423, 423

Monosaccharides, 55, 55–56

Monotremes, 480, 480

Mono-unsaturated fats, 64

Monsanto Company, 213

Morphological species concept, 416

Morphospecies, 524

Mosses, 498–500, 499, 500, 639

Moths, mate guarding in, 388

mRNA. See Messenger RNA (mRNA)

MRSA infections, 548

Multigeneration experiments, 356, 356–357, 357

Multiple allelism, 295, 295, 295–297, 297

Mussels, 460

Mutations, 197, 197–200, 198, 199, 326, 326–328, 327

chemical-induced, 200

point, 198, 199

radiation-induced, 198–200

spontaneous, 198

Mutualism, 636, 636–638, 637

Mycelium, 520

Mycorrhizae, 522, 522, 522–523, 523

N

NADH, 159, 160, 161, 162, 163, 167

jet lag and, 165–166

NADPH, 150, 152

Naked chickens, 212, 214

National Invasive Species Council, 666

Natterjack toads, call of, 397, 397

Natural preserves, design of, 678–679, 679

Natural selection

adaptation to environment and, 339–341, 340

aging and, 590–591, 591

artificial selection as special case of, 341

coevolution and, 629

conditions for occurrence of, 332–334, 332–335

directional selection and, 342, 342–343, 343, 344–346

disruptive selection and, 344, 344

evolution of complex traits and behaviors and, 346, 346–347, 347

life histories and, 582–584, 583, 584

as mechanism of evolution, 15, 325–326

stabilizing selection and, 343, 343–344

theory of evolution by, 15

Nautiluses, 461

Neutrons, 41

Niches, 628, 628, 628–629

Nitrogen cycle, 625, 625–626

Nitrogen dioxide, acid rain and, 666, 666–668, 667

Nodes, 421, 421–422

Non-amniotes, 476

Noncompetitive inhibitors, 73, 73–74

Nondisjunction, 267, 267

Nonpolar head, 95, 95

Nonpolar molecules, 51

Non-vascular plants, 496, 496, 498–500, 499, 500

Normal flora, 543

Norway spruces, 507

Notochord, 470, 471

Novelty-seeking individuals, 308

Nuclear membrane (nuclear envelope), 112, 113

Nuclear pores, 112–113

Nucleic acids, 75, 75–77, 180. See also Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA); Ribonucleic acid (RNA)

information stored by, 75, 75–76

Nucleolus, 113, 113

Nucleotides, 75, 75, 75–76, 180

Nucleus (atomic), 41, 41

Nucleus (of cell), 91, 112, 112–113, 113, 127

Nudibranches, 460

Null hypothesis, 9, 9–10

Nuptial gifts, 387

O

Observations

anecdotal, 27, 28

in scientific method, 8–9, 9

Ocean currents, weather and, 618, 618–619, 619

Oceans

deep, 657

open, 613, 613

Octopuses, 461, 461

intelligence of, 462, 462

Offspring, number and size of, 584–585, 585

Oils, hydrogenation of, 64, 64, 78

Olestra, 65

Open oceans, 613, 613

Operons, 195

Oral herpes, 559

Orders, 413, 414

Organelles, 91

Organic molecules, formation of, 406, 406–407, 407

Origin of replication, 239

The Origin of Species (Darwin)

on classification, 421

on evolution of behavior, 409, 421, 428

on natural selection, 340, 357

on pace of evolution, 428

publication of, 323–324, 324

survival of the fittest and, 338

on variation in nature, 332

on “warm little pond,” 409

Osmosis, 104, 104, 104–105, 105

Outbreeding, 513

Ovaries, 508, 509

Ovules, 504

Oxygen, bonding of, 45, 45–46

Oxygen Revolution, 542

Oysters, 460

Ozone layer depletion, 674, 674–676, 675

P

Pacific yew tree, 650, 650

Pair bonds, 392

Pan paniscus, 661, 661

Pará (Brazil), 673

Paramecium, 554

Parasites, 556, 556, 634

Parasitism, 634, 634–636, 635

Parent cells, 235, 235, 243, 244

Parenting, by males versus females, 383

Passive transport, 102, 102, 102–103, 103

Paternity uncertainty, 384, 386, 389–390

Pathogenic bacteria, 545, 545–547, 546

Pauling, Linus, 21, 179–180

PCR. See Polymerase chain reaction (PCR)

Pea plants, Mendel’s experiments using, 282–285

Peacocks, mate selection in, 387, 391–392

Peat, 500, 500

Peat moss, 500

Pedigrees, 291, 291, 291–292, 292

Penicillium, 519, 519, 522

Peptide bonds, 70

Peptidoglycans, 539

Periodic table, 42

Persian buttercup, 411

Pesticides, containing Bacillus thuringiensis, 210–211, 211

pH, 51, 51–53, 52, 53

enzymes and, 73, 73

Phagocytosis, 107, 107, 554

Pharyngeal slits, 470, 471

Phenotype, 187, 286

genotype and, 286, 286–287, 287

genotype translation into, 293–303

Phenylalanine, 302, 302

Phenylketonuria (PKU), 302, 302

Pheromones, 395

Phospholipid bilayer, 95, 95, 95–96

Phospholipids, 66, 66, 95

Phosphorus cycle, 626, 626–627

Photoautotrophs, 542, 542

Photons, 146

Photosynthesis, 92, 137, 137, 143, 143–156, 144

Calvin cycle and, 152, 152–153, 153

CAM and, 155–156

C4, 154–155, 155

chlorophyll and. See Chlorophyll

chloroplasts and, 145, 145

C3, 154

I-7

“photo” segment of, 144, 144, 150, 151, 152

photosystems and, 149–150, 149–151

sunlight and, 146, 146–147, 147

“synthesis” segment of, 144, 144, 152, 152–153, 153

Photosystems, 149, 149–150, 149–151, 152

Phyla, 413, 414

Phylogeny, 421

Physical defenses, 632, 632, 632–633

Phytoplankton, 555

Pigments, 146. See also Chlorophyll

Pili, 90

Pines, 504, 505, 506, 506, 507

Pinocytosis, 107

Pitchfork, Colin, 220–221, 221

PKU. See Phenylketonuria (PKU)

Placebo effect, 18

Placebos, 13

Placentals, 480, 480

Plants, 494, 494–496, 494–517

adapted to water scarcity, 153–156, 154–156

carnivorous, 517, 517

cell wall of, 124, 124–125, 127

chloroplasts of, 126, 126–127, 127

crop. See Agriculture

first, 497–502

flowering. See Angiosperms

fruits of, 514, 514–515

fungal symbionts of, 522, 522–523, 523

fungi and, 518–519, 519, 522, 522–524, 523

land, first, 497–498, 498

with medicinal uses, 516

non-vascular, 496, 496, 498–500, 499, 500

photosynthesis and. See Chlorophyll; Photosynthesis

relationship with animals, 514–517

resistance to predation, 515–517, 516, 517

seeds and, 503, 503–504, 503–507, 514, 514–515

vacuoles of, 125, 125–126, 127

vascular, 501, 501–502, 502

Plasma membrane, 89, 89, 94, 94–101

active transport across, 106, 106

diffusion across, 102, 102–103, 103

endocytosis and exocytosis and, 107–109, 107–109

faulty, diseases due to, 98, 98–99, 99

“fingerprint” of, 100, 100–101, 101

functions of, 95

molecules embedded in, 96, 96–97, 97

origin of life and, 408–409, 409

osmosis across, 104, 104–105, 105

phospholipid bilayer of, 95, 95–96

Plasmids, 206, 206, 540

Plasmodesmata, 124, 125

Plasmodium, 556, 556

Platypus, 480, 480

Pleiotropy, 298, 298–299, 299

Point mutations, 198, 199

Polar bodies, 256, 256

Polar head, 95, 95

Polar ice, 612. See also Ice caps

Polar molecules, 47

Pollen grains, 504

Pollination, 504, 506, 510, 510–511, 511

Polyandry, 391

Polychaetes, 458

Polydactyly, among Amish people, 329, 330

Polygamy, 391

Polygenic traits, 297, 297, 297–298

Polygyny, 391, 391, 391, 392

Polymerase chain reaction (PCR), 205, 206

Polypeptides, 70

Polyploidy, 418

Polysaccharides, 58, 58, 58–59

Polyunsaturated fats, 64

Ponds, 613, 613

Population bottleneck effect, 329, 330, 331

Population density, 576

Population ecology, 570–607, 573

aging and, 589–594, 602

environmental limitation on population growth and, 576, 576–577, 577

growth rate of populations and, 574–575, 575

human population growth and, 595–601

life histories and, 582–588

maximum sustainable yield and, 580, 580–581, 581

populations cycling between large and small and, 578, 578–579, 579

Population growth

bacterial, 259, 259

environmental limit on, 576, 576–577, 577

rapid, cost of, 585–586

rate of, 574–575, 575

Population size, extinction risk and, 660

Populations, 573

human. See Human population

Porcupines, hazard factor and, 593

Portuguese man-o’-war, 454

Positive correlation, 27

Post-anal tails, 470, 471

Postzygotic barriers, 412, 412, 413

Potential energy, 138, 138

Praying mantises, 259

Precipitation. See Rainfall

Predation

adaptations produced by, 631–634, 632–634

parasitism as, 634–636, 635

plant defenses against, 515–517, 516, 517

Predictions, testable, devising, 10–11, 11

Pregnancy, gestational diabetes and, 376, 376–377

Prepared learning, 370

Preseucoila imallshookupis, 413

Presley, Elvis, 413

Prezygotic barriers, 412, 412–413, 413

Prilosec, 54

Primary active transport, 106, 106

Primary consumers, 620, 621

Primary electron acceptor, 149

Primary productivity, 620

Primary structure of proteins, 70, 71

Primary succession, 639–640, 640

Primase, 240

Primates. See also specific primates

evolution of, 481, 481–483, 482

Principles of Geology (Lyell), 320, 321

Prions, 558

Probiotic therapy, 543–544

Producers, 620

energy flows to consumers from, 620–622, 621

Prokaryotes, 89. See also Archaea; Bacteria

cell division in, 233

gene regulation in, 194, 195, 195–196

replication in, 234–235, 235

structural features of, 89, 89–90

Prokaryotic cells, 89, 89, 89–90, 432

chromosomes of, 234, 234

Promoter sites, 188, 195

Prophase, 245

in meiosis, 253, 254, 254, 255

in mitosis, 245, 246

Protein synthesis, 193

RNA and, 77, 77

Proteins, 67, 67–74

amino acids and, 68, 68

in cytoskeleton, 114

denaturation of, 71, 71

in diet, 68–69, 69

energy from, 169, 169

enzymatic, 68, 72–74, 72–74, 97

functions of, 67, 67–68

receptor, 96–97, 97

recognition, 97, 97

structure of, 70, 70–71, 71

surface, 96, 96

transmembrane, 96, 96

transport, 97, 97, 103

Proteus, 538

Prothallus, 502

Protists, 423, 437, 448, 553–556

animal-like, 554

first eukaryotes as, 553, 553–554

fungus-like, 554, 554–555

pathogenic, 556, 556

plant-like, 554, 555, 555

Protons, 41

number of, 41, 41–42, 42

Protostomes, 449

Provisioning services, 651, 652

Pseudoscience, 27, 27, 27–28

Punctuated equilibrium, 427, 427–428, 428

Punnett, R. C., 335

Punnett square, 286, 286–287, 287

Pupa, 467, 467, 467–468

Purple loosestrife, 665, 665

Pyruvate, 158

Q

Quagga mussels, 665–666

Quaternary structure of proteins, 70, 71

R

Rabies, 635, 635–636

Rabies virus, 560

Racial differences, 438

Radial symmetry, 448

Radiation therapy, 249

Radiation-induced mutations, 198–200

Radioactive atoms, 42

Radiometric dating, 348, 348–349, 349

Rain shadows, 616

Rainfall

acid rain, 666–668, 667, 668

day of the week and, 32

global patterns of, 615, 615–616

Random assortment, 253

Randomization, 18

Rats

running in maze, 346, 346–347

superstitious behavior in, 5, 5

Ray-finned fishes, 473, 473–474, 474

Realized niche, 628, 629

Receptor proteins, 96, 96–97, 97

Receptor-mediated endocytosis, 107, 107–108, 109

Recessive traits, 284, 284

frequency in population, 335–337, 336

Reciprocal altruism, 374, 377–378, 378, 379

Recognition proteins, 97, 97

Recombinant DNA technology, 208, 208–209

Recombination, 253

Red deer

mate selection in, 387

tradeoff between reproduction and growth and, 584

Redwoods, 504, 505, 506, 506

Regeneration, in photosynthesis, 152–153

Regulating services, 651, 652

Repeatability, of experiments, 21, 21–22

Replication, 234, 238–241, 239, 240

of chromosomes, 244, 252, 252–253, 254

discontinuous, 241

origin of, 239

in prokaryotes, 234–235, 235

Replication forks, 239

Reproducibility, of experiments, 21, 21–22

Reproduction

asexual. See Asexual reproduction

difficulties classifying species and, 415, 415

growth and, 584, 585

sexual. See Sexual reproduction

survival and, 584, 585

tradeoff with longevity, 2

Reproductive cells, 236. See also Eggs; Gametes; Sperm

Reproductive investment, 382, 382–394, 582, 582–583, 583

competition and courtship and, 386–388, 387

differing patterns in males and females, 384, 384–386

mate guarding and, 388, 388–390, 389

monogamy versus polygamy and, 391, 391–393, 392

paternity uncertainty and, 384, 386, 389–390

sexual dimorphism and, 393, 393–394

Reproductive isolation, 411

Reproductive output, 591

Reproductive success

differential, natural selection and, 333, 333–334

fitness and, 338–339, 339

of humans, 392, 392–393

Resistance plasmids, 540

Resource partitioning, 630, 630

Respiration, cellular. See Cellular respiration

Restoration ecology, 679

Restriction enzymes, 205, 205

Retroviruses, 562

Rh blood group, 297

Ribonucleic acid (RNA), 75

messenger. See Messenger RNA (mRNA)

origin of life and, 408, 408

protein synthesis and, 77, 77

structure of, 77, 77

transfer, 190, 191

viral, 557, 558, 558

Ribosomal subunits, 190

Ribosomes, 89, 90, 113

Rice, golden, 209, 209–210, 210

Ring species, 416

difficulties classifying, 415, 415–416

Rivers, 613, 613

RNA. See Ribonucleic acid (RNA)

RNA bases, 75–76

RNA viruses, 559

Rodents

hazard factors and, 592, 592

reproductive strategy of, 583, 583

Ronaldo, Cruistiano, 411

Roots, 495

Rose, 411

Rough endoplasmic reticulum (rough ER), 120, 121, 127

Roundworms, 456, 457, 457–458

Rubisco, 152

Ruffin, Julius, 178, 178

S

S phase, 237

Sahara Desert, 616

Salamanders, DNA of, 184

Salmon, tradeoff between reproduction and survival in, 584, 585

I-8

Sand dollars, 468, 469

Sands, Bobby, 316

SARS. See Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS)

Saturated fats, 62, 63, 64

Saussurea laniceps, 345–346

Savannas, 612, 613

Scallops, 460

Scathophaga stercoraria, 258

SCID. See Severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID)

Science, 2, 2–3

limitations of, 29–30, 30

Scientific literacy, 4

Scientific method, 5–6, 6

steps in, 7, 7–14, 8

Scorpions, 464

Scrubbers, to prevent acid rain, 668

Sea anemones, 454, 456

Sea slugs, 459–460

Sea stars, 468, 469, 641

Sea urchins, 468, 469

Seaweed, 555

Second law of thermodynamics, 140

Secondary active transport, 106, 106

Secondary consumers, 620, 621

Secondary structure of proteins, 70, 71

Secondary succession, 640, 640

Seeds, 503, 503, 503–504

dispersal of, 514, 514–515

in gymnosperms, 504, 505, 506, 506

Segmented worms, 456, 458, 458–459

Segregation, law of, 284–285, 285

Sequoia sempervirens, 413

Sessile organisms, 447

Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), 559, 560

Severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID), 218, 218

Sex chromosomes, 252, 252, 260, 260–261, 261

incorrect number of, 268, 268–269

Sex determination

in humans, 260, 260–261, 261

in non-human species, 262, 262–264

selecting sex of child, 270

SRY gene and, 298–299

Sex-linked traits, 291, 299–301, 300

Sexual dimorphism, 393, 393–394, 394

Sexual partners

female tactics for selecting, 386–388, 387

male-female difference in selectiveness about, 384, 384–386

Sexual reproduction, 250

advantages of, 258, 258

disadvantages of, 258–259, 259

Sexual selection, 334

Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), 546, 546–547, 547

Shaving, hair color and texture and, 9, 10, 11, 12, 14

Shoots, 495

Short tandem repeats (STRs), 221–223, 222

Shrubs, 639

Siamese cats, 302–303, 303

Sick buildings, 521, 521

Sickle-cell disease, 298, 299

Sierra redwoods, 507

Sign stimulus, 368

Simple diffusion, 103, 103

Simple sugars, 55, 55–56

Single-gene traits, 281, 281

Sinosauropteryx, 478, 479

Sister chromatids, 244, 245

in meiosis, 252, 253–254, 255

Sitka spruces, 507

Skin cancer, sunscreen to prevent, 200–202

Slash-and-burn agriculture, 672

Smith, Jaden, 280, 280

Smith, Will, 280, 280

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (smooth ER), 120, 120–121, 121, 127

Snails, 459

Snakes

human babies’ fear of, 370, 370

monkeys’ fear of, 369, 369

Snow, John, 545

Solar energy

distribution of, 614, 614–615

species richness and, 656, 656

Solutes, 102, 102

Solutions

hypertonic, 104, 104, 105

hypotonic, 104, 104, 105

isotonic, 104, 104

Solvents, 102, 102

water as, 50–51, 51

Somatic cells, 236

Space-filling models, 45

Spanish influenza, 559, 559–560

Speciation, 416, 416–419

allopatric, 416–417, 418

sympatric, 417–418, 419

Speciation events, 421

Species, 411, 411–419, 414

biological species concept and, 411, 412, 414–416, 415

change into another species, determining, 415, 415

classification of, 420–421, 432–434, 433, 434

coevolution of, 629, 629–630

commensalism and, 636, 636, 637

determinants of longevity and, 592, 592–593

difficulties defining, 414–416, 415

distribution patterns of, 351, 351–352, 352

endangered, 660, 677

endemic, 657

extinction of. See Extinctions

flagship, 678–679

indicator, 679

invasive, 664–666, 664–666

keystone, 641, 641, 679

morphological species concept and, 416

mutualism and, 636, 636–638

naming of, 413–414, 414

niches and, 628, 628–629

non-native, introduction of, 661, 664–666, 664–666, 680

number on earth, 465–466

prioritizing for preservation, 676, 676–677, 677

speciation and, 416–419

threatened, 660

umbrella, 679

Species jumping, by viruses, 560–561, 561

Species richness, 656, 656

Specific epithet, 413

Spemann, Hans, 219

Spencer, Herbert, 338

Sperm. See also Gametes

production in meiosis, 255

separating to select sex of child, 270

Sphagnum moss, 500

Spiders, 464, 464

Spindle, 245

Spindle assembly checkpoint, 237, 238

Spindle fibers, 245

Spirilli, 538, 538

Sponges, 452, 452–453

Spontaneous mutations, 198

Sporangia, 501

Spores, 500, 501, 502

Sporophytes, 499, 499, 500

in ferns, 501, 502, 502

Spruces, 504, 505, 506, 506, 507

Squids, 461, 461

SRY gene, 298–299

Stabilizing selection, 343, 343, 343–344

Stamens, 508, 509

Staphylococcus aureus, antibiotic resistance of, 356, 357, 548

Starch, 58

Statistics, 25, 25–27, 26

STDs. See Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs)

Stem cells, 218

Steroid hormones, 65–66, 66

Sterols, 65

Stickleback fish, aggressive displays and attacks by, 368, 369

Stigmas, 508, 509

Stomach, hydrochloric acid in, 52, 53–54

Stomach ulcers, gastric freezing and, 16–18, 17

Stomata, 154, 154

Streams, 613, 613

acid precipitation and, 668

Streptococcus pyogenes, 546, 546

Stroma, 126, 145, 145

STRs. See Short tandem repeats (STRs)

Styles, 508, 509

Substrate molecules, 72

Succession, 639, 639–640, 640

Sugars

blood, 56, 56–57

creation by photosynthesis, 152

simple, 55–56

Sulfur dioxide, acid rain and, 666, 666–668, 667

Sunlight. See Light energy

Sunscreen, skin cancer prevention and, 200–202

Superstition, 5, 5–6

Surface proteins, 96, 96

Survival, reproduction and, 584, 585

Survivorship curves, 587, 587, 587–588

Swanson, Bob, 215

Swine fever, 560

Sympatric speciation, 417, 417–418, 419

Syphilis, 547

Systematics, 421

T

Tadpoles, 477

Tails, post-anal, 470, 471

Taq polymerase, 551

Tasmanian devil, 659–660

Taste preferences, 366–367, 367

Taxol, 650, 650

Taxus brevifolia, 650, 650

Tay-Sachs disease, 119, 203, 217, 217, 289, 289

Telomeres, 232, 232–233, 233

Telophase, 246

in meiosis, 253, 254, 255

in mitosis, 246, 247

Temperate deciduous forests, 612

Temperate grasslands, 612, 613

Temperatures. See also Global warming

altitude and, 616–617

enzymes and, 73, 73

modern landscapes and, 617, 617

Termites, 60

Terrestrial biomes, 612, 612

Terrestrial slugs, 459, 460

Tertiary consumers, 620, 620–621, 621

Tertiary structure of proteins, 70, 71

Testable predictions, devising, 10–11, 11

Test-cross, 290, 290

Testosterone, 65–66, 66, 67

Tetrapods, 476

Textbooks, access to, performance in class and, 25–27, 26

Theobroma cacao, fungi and, 524–525

Theories, 15

Thermodynamics, 140

Thermophiles, 436

Thermus aquaticus, 551

Thompson, William, 346

Thorium-236, 42

Threatened species, 660

Three-spined sticklebacks, temperature and growth rates of, 586

Thylakoids, 126, 145

Tibetan snow lotus, 345–346

Tight junctions, 110, 111

Tiktaalik, 350, 350

Tissues, categorization of animals and, 448

Tonicity, 104, 104

Topography, 616

weather and, 616, 616–617, 617

Tortoises, hazard factor and, 592, 592

Total reproductive output, 383, 383

Toxoplasma, 635

Traits, 184, 321, 321–322

analogous, 425

behavioral, evolution of. See Behavioral traits, evolution of

carriers of, 291–292

categorization of, 342, 342

complex, natural selection causing evolution of, 346, 346–347, 347

dihybrid, 304–305, 305

dominant. See Dominant traits

physical, evolution of. See Evolution

pleiotropic, 298–299, 299

polygenic, 297, 297–298

recessive, 284, 284, 335–337, 336

sex-linked, 291, 299–301, 300

single-gene, 281, 281

true-breeding, 282–283

variation for, natural selection and, 332, 332

Trans fats, 64

Transcription, 187, 187, 188–190, 189

Transduction, 540, 540–541, 541

Transfer RNA (tRNA), 190, 191

Transformation, 541, 541

Transgenic organisms, 205, 205–206, 206, 211–212, 212

Translation, 187, 187, 190–191, 190–192, 193

Transmembrane proteins, 96, 96

Transport proteins, 97, 97, 103

Treatment, 16

Trees, 639

Trichomoniasis, 547

Trickery, pollinators and, 510, 510

Triglycerides, 62

Trisomy 21, 265–267, 265–267

tRNA. See Transfer RNA (tRNA)

Trobriand Islanders, male-female differences in selectiveness about sexual partners of, 385

Trophic levels, 620, 621

Tropical rain forests, 612, 613, 656, 657

destruction of, 661, 661, 671–673, 671–673

Tropical seasonal forests, 612, 613

True-breeding traits, 282, 282–283

Tuber, 522

I-9

Tundra, 612

Tunicates, 470, 471

Turgor pressure, 126

Turkeys, selection for breast size, 342–343, 343

Turner syndrome, 268, 268

Turtles, sex determination in, 262, 262–264

U

Umbrella species, 679

Unsaturated fats, 63, 64

Uranium-238, 42

Urey, Harold, 407, 407, 409

Uta stansburiana, tradeoff between number and size of offspring of, 584–585, 585

UVB light, ozone layer depletion and, 675

V

Vacuoles, 125, 125–126, 127

Valproic acid, with anti-HIV drugs, 21, 21

Vampire bats, reciprocal altruism in, 377–378, 378

van Leeuwenhoek, Antonie, 599

Variables, 16

dependent, 24, 24

independent, 24, 24

Vascular plants, 501, 501, 501–502, 502

Vertebrae, evolution of, 475, 475

Vertebrates, 451

evolution of jaws and fins in, 473, 473–474, 474

jawless, 473

movement onto land, 474–475, 475

phylogeny of, 472, 472

size of, 472

terrestrial, 476–485

Vesicles, 107

Vestigial structures, 353, 353–354, 354

Vinblastine, 650

Vincristine, 650

Virulence plasmids, 540

Viruses, 433, 557–563. See also HIV/AIDS

diseases caused by, 559, 559–560

DNA, 559

organisms infected by, 560, 560–561, 561

RNA, 559

Visual displays, of data, 23, 23–25, 24

Visual signals, 395

Vitamin C, cancer and, 21, 25

Viviparity, 480

Volcanic eruptions, 663, 663

W

Waggle dance, 395, 395–396, 396

Wallace, Alfred Russel, 323, 323

Warning coloration, 632, 632–633

Wasps

pollination by, 510

sex determination in, 262, 262

Water

cohesiveness of, 48, 48–49, 49

frozen, 50, 50. See also Ice caps

properties of, 49–51

scarce, plant adaptation to, 153–156, 154–156

Water intoxication, 128

Watson, James, 180, 180, 238

Waxes, 66

Weather, 614–619. See also Global warming; Rainfall

global air circulation patterns and, 614, 614–616, 615

local topography and, 616, 616–617, 617

ocean currents and, 618, 618–619, 619

Weight loss, glycogen and, 57

Weinberg, Wilhelm, 335

Western grebe, mate selection in, 386, 387

Wetlands, 613, 613

Wilkins, Maurice, 180

Wilmut, Ian, 219

Wind, modern landscapes and, 617, 617

Woese, Carl, 432–433

World Wildlife Fund “Global 200,” 678

Worms, 456–459, 457, 458

X

X chromosomes, 260, 260–261, 261

single, Turner syndrome and, 268, 268

Xavante Indians, reproductive success of, 392, 392–393

x-axis, 24, 24

XXX females, 268, 269

XXY males, 268, 268–269

Y

Y chromosomes, 260, 260–261, 261

y-axis, 24, 24

Yeast infections, 547

Yellow dung fly, 258

Yellow honey mushroom fungus, 520–521, 521

Yellow-bellied marmots, mate selection in, 387

Yellowstone Park, 678

Yosemite Park, 678, 678

Yucatán Peninsula, asteroid crashing into, 430, 431

Z

Zebra, 415

Zebra mussels, 665, 665–666

Zygomycota, 519

Zygotes, 412

I-10