I-1

Abiotic environment, 611, 611

ABO blood groups, inheritance of, 295, 295–297, 297

Abscisic acid, 771, 777, 777

Absorption (by roots), 695, 695

Absorption (in digestive process), 888, 892, 892–894, 893, 894

Abstinence, for avoiding pregnancy, 1025

Acacia trees

mutualism with ants, 637–638, 766

thorns of, 764, 767–768

Acclimation, to low-oxygen conditions, 864–865, 865

Acetaldehyde, 168

Acetylcholine, 929–930

Acid precipitation, 666–668, 667, 668

Acids, 51, 51–53, 52, 53

Acoustical signals, 395

Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), 561, 1069. See also HIV/ AIDS

Acrosomes, 1012, 1012

ACTH. See Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

Actin, 945

Action potentials, 925, 925–927, 926, 927

Activation energy, 72

Activators, 73, 74

Active sites of enzymes, 72, 72

Active transport, 106, 106

“Adam’s apple,” 858

Adaptation, 339

behavioral, 366, 366–368, 367

to low-oxygen conditions, 863, 863–865, 864

natural selection and, 339–341, 340

production by predation, 631–634, 632–634

Adaptive immunity. See Specific immunity

Adaptive radiations, 428, 428–429, 429

Additive effects, 297

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP), 14,1 141, 141–142, 142

active transport and, 106

as fuel, 116

synthesis in electron transport chain, 162–164, 162–164

ADH. See Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

Adrenal glands, 977, 978–979, 979, 982

Adrenaline, 982

Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), 977, 982

Adults, 468

insect, 467, 468

African elephants, 412

Age pyramids, 595–596, 596, 597

Agent Orange, 775

Aging, 589

diet and, 899–900

longevity and, 589–590, 592–593, 593

natural selection and, 590–591, 591

slowing down process of, 593–594, 594

Agkistrodon rhodostoma, 650

Agriculture

biotechnology in, 208, 208–212

crop productivity and, 577–578, 578

faster growth and bigger bodies and, 211–212, 212

genetically modified crops and, 209, 209–210, 210

insect and herbicide resistance and, 210–211, 211

plant productivity and, 642

slash-and-burn, 672

AIDS. See Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS); HIV/AIDS

Air, plant growth and, 705, 706

Airborne, 3

Alarm calling, 633

Alcohol. See Ethanol

Algae

brown, 555

green, 497, 497

Ali, Mohammad, 845

Alleles, 184, 184, 279

changing frequencies of, evolution and, 325–326, 326, 328

determining, 289–290, 290

multiple allelism and, 295, 295–297, 297

Allergies, 736, 736, 1072, 1072, 1072–1073, 1073

Allopatric speciation, 416–417, 417, 418

Almas caviar, 87–88, 88

Aloe vera, 784

5-Alpha-reductase deficiency, 1031, 1031

Alternation of generations, 732

Altitude. See also Low-oxygen conditions

temperatures and, 616–617

Altruistic behaviors, 373, 373, 373–379

kin selection and, 374–377, 375, 376, 378

reciprocal altruism and, 374, 377–378, 378, 379

Alveoli, 859, 859

American mink, 631

Amino acids, 68, 68

essential, 69, 69, 880

non-essential, 880

in polypeptide chains, 70

Amino groups, 68, 68

Amish people, founder effect and, 329, 330

Amniocentesis, 265–266, 266

Amnion, 1028, 1029

Amniotes, 476, 477

Amniotic eggs, evolution of, 475, 475

Amphibians, 476, 476, 476–477

circulatory system of, 832–833, 833

lungs of, 860

Amphiuma means, DNA of, 184

Amplexus, 1008

Amygdala, 952, 953, 953

Analogous traits, 425

Anaphase, 245

in meiosis, 253, 254, 254, 255

in mitosis, 245–246, 247

Anaphylactic shock, 1073

Anatomy, comparative, common evolutionary origins revealed by, 353, 353–354, 354

Anchorage, by roots, 695, 695

Ancrod, 650

Androgen insensitivity syndrome, 1030, 1031

Anecdotal observations, 27, 28

Anemia, iron-deficiency, 843–844, 844, 854

Angel’s trumpet, 733

Angiosperms, 504, 508–513, 509. See also Flowers

classification of, 690, 690–691, 691

double fertilization and, 512, 512–513, 513

leaves of, 701

pollination of, 510, 510–511, 511

reproduction in. See Plant reproduction, sexual

stems of, 698, 698–699

Animal nutrition

animal diets and, 875, 875–876

brain and, 900–901

breastfeeding and, 1035, 1035

cardiovascular disease and, 848–849

energy requirements and, 876, 876–877, 877

lymphatic system and, 850, 850

need for food and, 874, 874–875

organic foods and, 718

weight-loss diets and, 905–906

Animal reproduction, asexual, 1006, 1006

sexual reproduction compared with, 1005, 1005–1007, 1006

Animal reproduction, sexual, 235, 250

advantages of, 258, 258, 259, 259

asexual reproduction compared with, 1005, 1005–1007, 1006

by binary fission, 233, 234–235, 235

disadvantages of, 258–259, 259

female reproductive tract and, 1016, 1016–1021, 1017

fertilization and. See Fertilization (animal)

male reproductive tract and, 1010, 1010–1016

sexual reproduction compared with, 1005, 1005–1007, 1006

sperm investment and, 1014–1016

Animals, 446. See also Invertebrates; Vertebrates; specific animals

body organization of, 792–794, 792–794

characteristics defining, 446, 446–447

circulatory system of, 828–851

diets of, 875, 875–876

fruit and seed dispersal by, 746, 746–747, 747

homeostasis in, 805–806, 806

hormones of. See Hormones (animal)

internal environment of, 804–806

invertebrate. See Invertebrates

key distinctions dividing, 448–449, 449, 450, 451

language in, 396–397

nutrition of. See Animal nutrition

obesity in, 903

oxytocin and, 970–971, 971

pollination by, 739, 739–740

protein needs of, 879–880, 880

relationships with plants, 514–517

reproduction in. See Animal reproduction, asexual; Animal reproduction, sexual

respiratory system of. See Gills; Lungs; Respiratory system

ruminant, 896, 896

vertebrate. See Vertebrates

Annelids, 456, 458, 458–459

Antacids, digestion and food allergies and, 53–54

Antarctic ice cap, global warming and, 669, 670

Antarctic ozone hole, 675, 675

Antechinus, tradeoff between reproduction and survival in, 584

Anterior pituitary, 976

Anthers, 508, 509, 734, 734

Antibiotic resistance, 356, 357, 548, 548–549, 549

Antibiotics, from bacteria, 435

Antibodies, 1057, 1057, 1058

structure and function of, 1060, 1060–1061, 1061

Antidiuretic hormone (ADH), 976

Antigen receptors, 1061

Antigen-presenting cells, 1066

Antigens, 1057, 1057

Antiseptic, 1051

Ants

mutualism with acacia trees, 637–638, 766

sex determination in, 262, 262

Anury, inheritance of, 291–292, 292

Aphids, 717, 717

Apical dominance, 773

Apical meristems, 698, 698

plant growth at, 750–751, 751–755, 752, 753–755

Apoptosis, 243, 1066, 1066–1067

Apples, health benefits of, 910

Aquaporins, 104

Arachnids, 464, 464

Archaea, 89, 433, 534, 550–552

contrasted with bacteria, 550, 550

in extreme environments, 436, 436

habitats of, 551, 551–552, 552

Archaeopteryx, 478, 479

Arctic ground squirrels, mate selection in, 386–387

Arctic habitats, plant adaptation to, 769

Arctic ice cap, global warming and, 670, 670

Aristotle, 706

I-2

Armstrong, Lance, 983, 983

Arrowleaf plant, growth and development of, 770, 770–771

ART. See Assisted reproductive technology (ART)

Arteries, 830, 830–831, 831, 838, 838, 847, 847

Arteriosclerosis, 847, 848

Arthritis, 947

of the knee, arthroscopic surgery for, 19–20

Arthropods, 463, 463–465, 464

Arthroscopic surgery, for arthritis of the knee, 19–20

Artificial selection, 341

Ascomycota, 519, 519

Ascorbic acid, 21, 25, 886

Asexual reproduction. See also Animal reproduction, asexual; Plant reproduction, asexual

by binary fission, 540, 540

difficulties classifying species and, 415, 415

Asian flu, 560

Asparagus, 698, 699

Aspartame, 934

Aspens, 726–727, 727

Aspirin, 224, 976

Assisted reproductive technology (ART), 1036, 1036–1038, 1037

Atacama desert, 615–616

Atherosclerosis, 847, 848

Athletes

acclimation to low-oxygen conditions and, 865

blood doping by, 216, 854

Atlantic salmon, 211

Atomic mass, 41

Atomic number, 41, 41–42

Atoms, 40, 40–43, 41

charged, as ions, 44, 44

electrons of. See Electrons

radioactive, 42

stability of, 43, 43–44

ATP. See Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)

Atrioventricular (AV) valves, 836

Atrium, 831, 831

Australian desert, 616

Australian social spider, altruistic behavior in, 373, 373

Australopithecines, 482, 483

Autism

genes responsible for, 298

MMR vaccine and, 28, 28–29

Autoimmunity, 1068, 1068, 1068–1069, 1069

Autonomic nervous system, 922, 922

Auxins, 771, 773, 773–775, 774, 779

AV valves. See Atrioventricular (AV) valves

Avian influenza virus, 561

Axons, 801, 920, 920

action potentials and, 925–927, 926, 927

B cells, 1061, 1061–1062, 1062

Babbling, hand, 953, 953

Baby boom, 595, 597

Bach, J. S., 959

Bacilli, 538, 538

Bacillus thuringiensis, pesticides containing, 210–211, 211

Background extinctions, 430, 431, 658–659

Bacteria, 89, 433, 534, 538–549

antibiotic resistance of, 356, 357, 548, 548–549, 549

beneficial, 543, 543–544

biodiversity of, 434–435, 435

cellulose-digesting, 896–897, 897

classification and structure of, 538, 538

in colon, 895

contrasted with archaea, 550, 550

food contamination by, 564

Gram-positive and Gram-negative, 539

growth and reproduction of, 539–541, 540, 541

habitats of, 544–545

identification of, 539, 539

metabolic diversity among, 541–542, 542

methane consumption by, 652–653

nitrogen fixation by, 625–626, 707–708, 708

pathogenic, 545–547, 546

population growth of, 259, 259

Balance, sense of, 942

Baldness, male-pattern, 300–301

Ball-and-stick models, 45

Bamboo, 700

Banana leaves, 700

Bananas, ripening of, 775–776, 776

Bariatric surgery, 905

Barrier contraceptive methods, 1023, 1024

Basal metabolic rate (BMR), 876, 876–877, 877

Base pairs, 180

Bases (in DNA), 180, 180, 181

Bases (solutions), 51, 51–53, 52, 53

Basidiomycota, 519, 519

Basophils, 1054

Beech trees, tradeoff between reproduction and growth and, 584, 585

Bees

pollination by, 510

sex determination in, 262, 262

waggle dance of, 395–396, 396

Behavior, 367

Behavioral defenses, 633, 633

Behavioral Ecology, 22, 22

Behavioral traits, evolution of, 364–404

adaptive value of behavior and, 366, 366–368, 367

altruistic behaviors and, 373, 373–379

communication and, 395–397

complex behaviors and, 371, 371–372

environmental mismatches and, 379–380, 380

group selection and, 381, 381

innate behaviors and, 368, 368–369

kin selection and, 374–377, 375, 376, 378

learned behaviors and, 369, 369–370

reproductive investment and, 382–394

Belding’s ground squirrels, alarm calls of, 374–375, 375, 376

Beluga whales, magnetic field detection by, 942, 942

The bends, 866

Beta-blockers, 98–99, 99

Bias, guarding against, 22, 22

Bilateral symmetry, 448, 448–449

Bile, 891

Binary fission, 233, 234, 234–235, 235, 540, 540

Biodiversity, 404–443, 406, 650–657, 651

among archaea, 436, 436

among bacteria, 434–435, 435

among eukarya, 437, 437

of animals, 444–491. See also Animals; Invertebrates; Vertebrates

distribution of, 655–657, 655–657

evolutionary trees and, 420–425

macroevolution and, 426–431

of microbes, 534, 534–535

most valuable, protecting, 676, 676–677, 677

ocean ice and coastal estuary flooding and, 670

origin of life on earth and, 406–410

racial differences and, 438

reduction by deforestation, 672

reduction by extinction. See Extinctions

scales of, 654, 654–655

species and. See Species

strategies for preserving, 678, 678–679, 679

three domains of life and, 432–434, 433, 434

value of, 650–652, 650–652

Biodiversity hotspots, 656, 656–657, 657

Biofuels, 136, 136, 136–137

Biogeography, 351, 351, 351–352, 352

Biological clocks, of plants, 780–781, 781

Biological literacy, 4, 4, 4–5

Biological species concept, 411, 412, 414–416, 415

Biology, 3, 3–4

conservation, 654, 654–655

molecular, common genetic sequences revealed by, 355, 355

unifying themes in, 31

Biomass, 622

Biomes, 611–613, 612, 612, 613

Biosphere 2 dome, 876, 876

Biotechnology, 204, 204–207, 204–220

agricultural applications of, 208, 208–212

cloning and, 219, 219–220, 220

medical applications of, 215–218, 216

safety of genetically modified foods and, 212–214, 213

Biotic environment, 610, 611

Biotin, 886

Bipedalism, 482

Bird flu, 561

Birds, 477–478, 477–479. See also specific birds

circulatory system of, 832, 832

gizzard of, 889

magnetic field detection by, 942

memory in, 953

parental investment in, 391, 392

pollination by, 739, 739

reproductive output in, 383–384, 384

reptiles compared with, 478, 478

respiratory systems of, 860, 860–861, 861

sex determination in, 262, 262

sexual dimorphism in, 393, 393

Birth, 1034, 1034–1035

Birth control pills, 1023–1024

Birth weight, stabilizing selection and, 343, 343–344

Bison, 641

Bisphenol A (BPA), 993, 994–995

Bivalve mollusks, 459, 460, 460

Black walnut tree, 766

Black widow spiders, 259, 259, 464

mate guarding in, 389, 389

Blastocysts, 1028

Blastulas, 1028

Blind experimental design, 18

Blood, 796, 830. See also Hemoglobin

adaptation to low-oxygen conditions and, 864, 864, 865

clotting of, 808–809, 809, 844, 844

components of, 842, 842–844, 843

filtering of, by kidneys, 817, 817

iron-deficiency anemia and, 843–844, 844, 854

pH of, 52–53, 53

sharing of, by vampire bats, 377–378, 378

Blood, Diane, 1004, 1004

Blood doping, 216, 854

Blood flow. See also Circulatory systems

brain activity and, 841–842

human, 834–836, 834–836, 838, 838–840, 839

muscle contraction and, 839, 839, 840

pulmonary circuit of, 832, 833

systemic circuit of, 832, 833

thermoregulation and, 812, 812

Blood groups, inheritance of, 295, 295–297, 297

Blood pressure, 845, 845, 845–846, 846

Blood, Stephen, 1004

Blood sugar, 56, 56–57

diabetes and, 906–907, 907

Blood vessels, 828, 838, 838–840, 839, 847, 847

arteries, 830, 830–831, 831, 838, 838

capillaries, 831, 831, 838, 838–840

diseases of, 847, 847–849, 849

veins, 831, 831, 838, 840

Bluegill sunfish, paternity uncertainty in, 389–390

BMI. See Body mass index (BMI)

BMR. See Basal metabolic rate (BMR)

Body fat. See also Obesity

carbohydrate conversion into, 884, 885

Body mass index (BMI), 902, 903

Body plan, innovations in, 448, 449

Body size, sexual dimorphism in, 394

Body temperature, 804, 804–805

fever and, 820, 1055–1056, 1056

thermoregulation and, 809, 809–813, 810–812

Bond energy, 45

Bonds

covalent, 45, 45–46, 47

double, 46

electrons and, 43, 43–44, 44

hydrogen, 46–47, 47

ionic, 45, 46, 47

peptide, 70

Bone, 796. See also Skeletal systems

I-3

Bonobos, 661, 661

Bornean orangutan, 411

Bottleneck, 329, 330, 331

Bowman’s capsule, 817, 817–818

Boyer, Herbert, 215

BPA. See Bisphenol A (BPA)

BRAC genes, breast cancer and, 197

Brain, 948–956

activity of, 841–842, 962

caffeine and, 959, 959–960, 960

diet and nutrition and, 900–901

gray matter of, 926, 927

growth of, cognitive training and, 954–956

hemispheres of, 950–951

language and, 952, 952–953

learning and, 953

memory and, 953–954

organization of, 948–951, 948–952

“pleasure centers” in, 950

taste sense and, 934

white matter of, 926, 927

yawning to cool, 813–815

Brainstem, 949

Breast cancer, BRAC genes and, 197

Breastfeeding, 1035, 1035

Breathing. See Lungs; Respiratory system

Bribery, pollinators and, 510, 510–511

Bristlecone pine trees, longevity of, 589

Broca’s area, 952, 952

Broccoli, 699

Bronchi, 859, 859

Bronchioles, 859, 859

Brown algae, 555

Brown fat, thermoregulation and, 812, 812–813

Brown recluse spider, 464

Brown tree snake, 664–665, 665

Bryophyllum, 727, 728

Bryophytes, 498, 498–500, 499, 500

Budding, 1006, 1006

Buffers, 52, 52–53, 53

Buffon, Georges, 319, 320

Buffy coat, 842, 843

Bulbourethral glands, 1011

Burns, Aloe vera and, 784

Bush crickets, male-female differences in selectiveness about sexual partners of, 384, 384–385

Cacao trees, fungi and, 524–525

Cactus, 700

Caffeine

brain and, 959, 959–960, 960

for weight loss, 905

Calcitonin, 980, 980–981, 982

Calcium

dietary, function and sources of, 886

plant growth and, 704

thyroid gland and, 980, 980–981

California condor, 679

Calment, Jeanne Louise, 589

Caloric restriction, 905

Calories, 876

Calvin cycle, 144, 144, 152, 152, 152–153, 153

CAM photosynthesis, 155, 155–156

Cambium

cork, 754

vascular, 753, 754

Camouflage, 632, 633, 766, 766

Cancer, 246

of breast, BRAC genes and, 197

cell division and, 246–249, 248, 249

gap junctions and, 110–111

hormones and, 990–991

metastasis of, 248, 248

natural killer cells and, 1052, 1052

of skin, sunscreen to prevent, 200–202

telomeres and, 233

treatment of, 248–249, 249

vitamin C and, 21, 25

Cane toad, 666, 666

Capillaries, 831, 831, 838, 838–840

Capsids, 557

Capsule, 539

Captive breeding programs, 679

Carbohydrates, 55, 55, 55–60, 881–883, 882. See also Sugars

complex, 58, 58–59, 59, 882, 882–883

conversion into body fat, 884, 885

as energy source, 56, 56–59, 169, 169

indigestible, 59, 59–60, 60

simple, 55–56

Carbo-loading, 57, 57

Carbon

bonding of, 46

formation of molecules containing, 406, 407, 407

need to reduce emissions of, 671

Carbon-13 (¹³C), 42

Carbon-14 (¹⁴C), 42

Carbon cycle, 624, 624–625

Carbon dioxide

as greenhouse gas, 670

release of, in animals. See Gills; Lungs; Respiratory system

Carbon monoxide, 857

Carboxyl groups, 68, 68

Cardiac muscle, 798, 798–799, 799, 943

Cardiovascular disease, 107–108, 108, 847, 847, 847–849, 849

Carnivores, 620, 621, 875, 875

Carnivorous plants, 517, 517, 708, 708, 709–710

Carnuba wax, 702

Carotenoids, 146

Carpels, 508, 509, 734, 734

Carriers, 291, 291–292

Carrion flowers, 726, 726

Carrying capacity (K), 576

for human population, 599–601, 599–601

Carson, Rachel, 992

Cartilage, 796

Cartilaginous fishes, 473, 474

Castor beans, 765

Catharanthus roseus, 650

Cauliflower, 699

CD markers, 100–101, 101

Celecoxib (Celebrex), 976

Cell body (of neuron), 800, 800–801, 920, 920

Cell cycle, 236, 236, 236–238, 237

Cell death, programmed, 1066, 1066–1067

Cell division, 232–241. See also Meiosis; Mitosis

cancer and, 246–249, 248, 249

chromosome replication and, 238–241, 239, 240

chromosome structure and, 234, 234–235, 235

eukaryotic cell cycle and, 236, 236–238, 237

telomeres and, 232–233, 233

Cell membrane. See Plasma membrane

Cell theory, 15, 87, 87

Cell wall, 90, 124, 124–125, 127

Cell-cycle control system, 237, 237

Cell-mediated immunity, 1062, 1063

Cells, 84–133, 86, 793, 793

active transport and, 106, 106

adaptation to environment, 117–118

in blood, 842, 842–844, 843

bulk transport of particles and, 107–109, 107–109

cell theory and, 87, 87

connections between, 110–111, 111

diploid, 250, 251

division of. See Cell division

eukaryotic. See Eukaryotic cells

first, formation of, 408–409, 409

haploid, 250, 251

osmosis and, 104, 104–105, 105

passive transport and, 102, 102–103, 103

photoreceptor, 936

plasma membrane bordering. See Plasma membrane

prokaryotic, 89, 89–90, 234, 234, 432

replacement of, 242, 242

reproductive. See Eggs; Gametes; Sperm

somatic, 236

stem, totipotent, 728

of vascular plants, 692, 692–693, 693

Cellular respiration, 137, 137, 157, 157–166, 158

ATP synthesis and, 162–164, 162–164

glycolysis in, 158, 158–159

jet lag and, 165–166

Krebs cycle and, 160, 160–162, 161

Cellulose, 59, 59, 59–60, 60

breakdown of, alternative means for, 896, 896–897, 897

Centipedes, 464

Central nervous system (CNS), 801, 921, 921–922, 922. See also Brain

Central vacuole, 125

Centrioles, 245

Centromeres, 237, 244, 245

Cephalopods, 459, 460, 460–461, 461

Cerebellum, 948, 949, 949

Cerebral cortex, 948, 950, 950–952, 951

Cervical caps, 1023

Cervix, 1016, 1016

CFCs. See Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)

C4 photosynthesis, 154, 154–155, 155

Chaparral, 612

Character displacement, 630, 630, 630–631

Charcoal rot, 764

Charnier, Madeline, 263

Checkpoints, 237, 237, 237–238

Cheetahs, bottleneck effect and, 329, 330, 331

Chelicerates, 464, 464

Chemical defenses, of plants, 516, 516, 632, 632, 764–766, 765, 766

Chemical energy, 138, 138, 138–139

Chemical reactions

facilitation by enzymes, 72, 72

regulation by enzymes, 73, 73–74, 74

Chemical signals, 395

Chemical-induced mutations, 200

Chemolithotrophs, 541, 541–542, 542

Chemoorganotrophs, 541, 542

Chemoreceptors, 933

taste sense and, 933, 933–934

Chemotherapy, 248–249, 249

Chewing, 889

Chiasmata, 257, 257

Chicken pox, 1058, 1064, 1064

Chickens, naked, 212, 214

Child abuse, kin selection and, 377

Childbirth, 1034, 1034–1035

Chimpanzees

similarity of human and chimpanzee genes and, 481–482

sperm competition in, 1013, 1013

The Chimpanzees of Gombe: Patterns of Behavior (Goodall), 1013

Chinook salmon, 211

Chitin, 59, 59

Chlamydia, 547, 1026

Chlorine, dietary, function and sources of, 886

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), 674, 674, 675, 675–676

Chlorophyll, 145

light absorption by, 146–147, 147

photons and, 148, 148–149

Chlorophyll a, 146, 147, 147, 149–150

Chlorophyll b, 146, 147, 147

Chloroplasts, 92, 126, 126, 126–127, 127, 145, 145

Chocolate, fungi and, 524–525

Cholecalciferol, 886

Cholera, 545, 546

Cholesterol, 65, 65, 97

cardiovascular disease and, 848–849, 849

hypercholesterolemia and, 107–108, 108

Chordata, 470, 471, 472. See also Vertebrates

Chorion, 1028

Chorionic villus sampling (CVS), 266

Chromatids, 244, 245

Chromatin, 113, 113, 234

Chromium, dietary, function and sources of, 886

Chromosomal aberrations, 198, 199

Chromosomes, 183, 234

eukaryotic, 234, 234

incorrect numbers of, 265–269

prokaryotic, 234, 234

replication of, 234–235, 235, 238–241, 239, 240, 244, 252, 252–253, 254

sex. See Sex chromosomes

Chyme, 891

Chytridiomycota, 519

Cilia, 115, 115, 1049

Cinchona, 766

I-4

Cinderella syndrome, 377

Circadian cycles, 979

Circulatory systems, 802, 802, 828–851. See also Blood; Blood flow; Blood vessels; Heart

blood pressure and, 845, 845–846, 846

cardiovascular disease and, 847, 847–849, 849

closed, 829–833, 830–833

functions of, 828–829, 829

of giraffes, 846, 846

hormone transport by, 971–972, 972, 973

human, 834–836, 834–836

lymphatic, 849–851, 850

open versus closed, 829–830, 830, 831

Clams, 460, 460

Class performance, access to textbook and, 25–27, 26

Classes, 413, 414

Cleavage, 1027, 1027–1028, 1027–1029

Clever Hans (horse), 18, 18

Climate change. See also Global warming; Rainfall; Weather

greenhouse gases and, 669, 669–671, 670

Climax communities, 640

Clonal selection, 1063, 1063–1064, 1064

Clone libraries, 207, 207

Clones, 206

Cloning, 206, 206–207, 219, 219–220, 220, 727

Clorox Corporation, 545

Closed circulatory systems, 829, 829–833, 830–833. See also Blood; Blood vessels; Heart

types of, 831–833, 832–833

Cnidarians, 454, 454–456, 455

Cnidocytes, 454, 455

CNS. See Central nervous system (CNS)

Cobalt, dietary, function and sources of, 886

Cocaine, 957, 958

Cocci, 538, 538

Codes, 182

Codominance, 294, 294

Codon table, 191, 191, 193

Codons, 191

Coelum, 1029, 1030

Coevolution, 629, 629, 629–630

Cognitive performance, hormones and, 988, 988–990, 989

Cognitive training, brain growth and, 954–956

Cohen, Stanley, 215

Cohesion, water movement through plants due to, 713–714, 714

Cohesion-tension mechanism, 714

Cohesiveness, of water, 48, 48–49, 49

Coho salmon, disruptive selection and, 344, 344

Cohorts, 595

Cold. See Temperatures; Thermoregulation

Cold habitats, plant adaptation to, 769, 769

Cold stress, fat cells and, 117–118

Coleochaetes, 497, 497

Collagen, 795

Collenchyma cells, 694, 694

Colon, 894, 894–895, 895

Colonization, adaptive radiations and, 429, 429

Colonizers, 639

Color blindness, 299–300, 300, 936

Coloration, sexual dimorphism in, 394

Colostrum, 1035

Commensalism, 636, 636, 637

Common cold, 559

echinacea and, 8, 9, 10, 11, 11–12, 13–14

Communication, 395, 395–397

honest signals in, 397, 397

language and, 396, 396. See also Language

signal types in, 395–396, 396

Communities, 573, 610, 611

change over time, 639–640, 640

climax, 640

competition and, 630, 630–631, 631

keystone species in, 641, 641

niches in, 628, 628–629

Comparative anatomy, common evolutionary origins revealed by, 353, 353–354, 354

Competitive exclusion, 630, 630

Competitive inhibitors, 73

Competitors, 640

Complement proteins, 1053, 1053, 1054

Complementarity, 238, 238–239, 239

Complete metamorphosis, 467, 468

“Complete” proteins, 880, 881

Complex carbohydrates, 58, 58, 58–59, 882, 882–883

Complex sugars, 882, 882–883

Composting, 706, 706

Compound eyes, 937, 938

Compounds

bonds in, 45–47

ionic, 45, 46

Concentration gradients, 102

Condensation, 244

Condoms, 1023

Conduction, heat exchange by, 811, 812

Cones (of gymnosperms), 504, 506

Cones (retinal), 936

Conformers, 808, 808

Coniferous forests, 612

Conifers, 507, 507

leaves of, 700, 701

Conjugation, 540, 541

Connective tissue, 793, 794

functions of, 795, 795

special, 796–797

structure of, 796–797

Connective tissue proper, 795, 795–796, 796

Conservation, 674–679

prioritizing species to preserve, 676, 676–677, 677

reversing ozone depletion and, 674, 674–676, 675

strategies for preserving biodiversity and, 678, 678–679, 679

Conservation biology, 654, 654, 654–655

Consumer product labeling, 27–28

Consumers, energy flows from producers to, 620–622, 621

Contraception, 1023, 1023–1025, 1024, 1025

Control group, 16

Convection, heat exchange by, 811, 812

Convergent evolution, 354, 354, 424, 424, 424–425, 425

Copper, dietary, function and sources of, 886

Coprophagy, 897, 897

Copulation, 1008

Copulatory plugs, 388

Coral bleaching, 455, 455

Coral reefs, 455, 613, 613, 656–657, 657

Corals, 454, 454–455, 455

Cork cambium, 754

Cork cells, 692, 692, 692–693

Corn, 764

genetically modified, 210, 210

Coronary arteries, 847, 847

Corpus callosum, 951

Corpus luteum, 1020

Correlation, positive, 27

Cortex (cerebral), 948, 950, 950–952, 951

Cortex (of plant stems), 698, 699

Corticotropin, 977

Cortisol, 982

mood and, 986, 986

Cotyledons, 690, 690, 744

Coughing, 820

Countercurrent exchange systems, 857

Courtship rituals, 386, 387

Covalent bonds, 45, 45, 45–46, 47

Cows, selection for milk production ability, 342, 342–343

Crab lice, 547, 1026

Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, 558

Crick, Francis, 180, 180, 238

Crickets, hearing in, 940

Critical experiments, 11, 11–13, 12

Crocus sativus, 734, 734–735

Crops. See Agriculture

Crosses, 282

Crossing over, 253, 257, 257

Crustaceans, 464, 464–465

C3 photosynthesis, 154

Cultural services, 651, 652

Cuticle, 498, 692, 692, 699, 702, 702

Cuvier, Georges, 319, 320

CVS. See Chorionic villus sampling (CVS)

Cyanobacteria, 542

Cyanogenic glycosides, as plant defense, 765

Cycads, 505, 740

Cystic fibrosis, 98, 98

Cytokines, 1052, 1052–1053

fever and, 1055–1056, 1056

Cytokinesis, 237, 246, 254, 255

Cytokinins, 771, 777, 777

Cytoplasm, 90, 114

Cytoskeleton, 114, 114, 114–115, 115, 127

Cytosol, 90

Cytotoxic T cells, 1066, 1066–1067, 1067

Daffodils, 698, 733

Dahlias, 733

Dannon yogurt, 3

Darwin, Charles

on adaptation, 447

on altruistic behaviors, 373–374

on carnivorous plants, 709

on classification of species, 420–421

early life of, 321

influences on thought of, 320, 321, 323

monk parakeets and, 664

natural selection and, 325–326

observations on Galápagos Islands, 321–322, 322

The Origin of Species and. See The Origin of Species (Darwin)

on pace of evolution, 428

on seedling orientation, 773

society inhabited by, 319–320

theory of evolution of, 323, 323–324, 324, 348

voyage on the Beagle, 321, 321–322

“warm little pond” of, 406, 407, 409

Darwin, Erasmus, 320

Darwin, Francis, 773

“Darwinian medicine,” 820

Data points, 24, 24

Daughter cells, 235, 235, 243, 244

DDT, 992, 992

Decomposers, 521, 621, 621, 621–622

Decomposition, 705, 706

Deep oceans, 657

Defenses

animal, against diseases, 829

plant. See Plant defenses

Deforestation

reversibility of, 662

of tropical rain forests, 661, 661, 671–673, 671–673

Demographic transitions, 597, 597–598, 598

Denaturation of proteins, 71, 71

Dendrites, 800, 920, 920, 924–925, 925

Dendritic cells, 1052, 1052

Density-dependent factors, 576

Density-independent factors, 576, 576–577

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), 75, 180

bacterial, 540

complementarity of, 238–239, 239

eukaryotic, 234, 234

evolutionary trees based on, 423, 423–424

function of, 179

genes and, 182–184, 182–184

genetic ancestry testing and, 486

genetic sequences linking all life forms and, 355, 355

as individual identifier, 178, 178–179, 179

mitochondrial, 117

non-coding (junk), 184–185, 185, 186

in nucleus, 112

prokaryotic, 234, 234

proofreading and repair of, 240

replication of, 238–241, 239, 240

structure of, 76, 76–77, 179–181, 180, 181, 238–239, 239

telomeres and, 232–233, 233

transcription and, 187, 187, 188–190, 189

viral, 557, 558, 558

Dependent variables, 24, 24, 24

Depression, long-term, 954

Dermal tissue, of plants, 691, 692, 692–693

Descartes, René, 979

Deserts, 612, 613

formation of, 615, 615–616

plant adaptations to, 768, 769

rain shadows and, 616

I-5

Desmosomes, 110, 111

Detrivores, 621, 621, 621–622

Deuterostomes, 449

DHT. See Dihydrotestosterone (DHT)

Diabetes, 906, 906–907, 907

gestational, 376, 376–377

treatment of, 215

type 1, 215, 1068, 1068–1069

Diaea ergandros, altruistic behavior in, 373, 373

Diaphragm (contraceptive), 1023

Diaphragm (muscle), 862, 862

Diarrhea, 820

Diastolic pressure, 845, 845, 845–846

Diatoms, 555, 555

Diet, 898–909. See also Nutrients; Nutrition

aging and, 899–900

brain and, 900–901

complete, 169, 169

healthy, 898, 898–900, 899

lipids in, 62, 62–64, 64–65

obesity and, 902, 902–903, 903

proteins in, 68–69, 69

weight-loss, 905, 905–906

Dietary fiber, 60, 60, 883

Differential reproductive success, 333

natural selection and, 333, 333–334

Diffusion, 102, 102, 102–103, 103

Digestion, 874

antacids and, 53–54

in digestive process, 888, 888, 890–892

Digestive process, 888, 888–897

absorption in, 888, 892–894, 893, 894

alternatives for, in animals, 896, 896–897, 897

digestion in, 888, 888, 890–892

elimination in, 888, 894–895, 895

ingestion in, 888, 889, 889–890

Digestive system, 802

protection of, 1049

Dihybrid cross, 305

Dihybrid traits, 304–305, 305, 305

Dihydrotestosterone (DHT), 1030

Dinosaurs, extinction of, 430

Dioxin, 775

Dipeptides, 90

Diphosphoglyceric acid (DPG), 865

Diploid cells, 250, 251

in bryophytes, 499, 499, 500

in ferns, 501, 502, 502

of fungi, 520, 520

Direct diffusion, respiration by, 852, 853

Directional selection, 342, 342, 342–343, 343, 344–346

Disaccharides, 58, 58–59

Discontinuous replication, 241

Diseases and genetic disorders

AIDS. See HIV/AIDS

anury, 291–292, 292

arteriosclerosis and atherosclerosis, 847, 848

arthritis, 19–20, 947

autism, 28, 28–29, 298

bacterial, 435, 545–547, 546

cardiovascular, 107–108, 108, 847, 847–849, 849

cholera, 545, 546

color blindness, 299–300, 300

common cold, 8, 9, 10, 11, 11–12, 13–14, 559

of connective tissue, 796–797

Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, 558

cystic fibrosis, 98, 98

diabetes. See Diabetes

Down syndrome, 265–267, 265–267

Ebola, 1046

elephantiasis, 850–851, 851

faulty membranes causing, 98, 98–99, 99

fever and, 820, 1055–1056, 1056

fighting, lymphatic system and, 850, 850

fish odor syndrome, 278, 279, 279

gene therapy for, 217–218

genital herpes, 547, 559, 1026

gestational diabetes, 376, 376–377

global climate change and, 671

HIV. See HIV/AIDS

Hutchinson-Gilford progeria syndrome, 233

influenza. See Influenza

iron-deficiency anemia, 843–844, 844, 854

Klinefelter syndrome, 268, 268

lactose intolerance, 74

mad cow disease, 558

malaria, 556, 556

multiple sclerosis, 926–927, 1069, 1069

mutations and, 203, 203

oral herpes, 559

organic foods and, 718

parasitic, 556, 556, 850–851, 851

pathogens and. See Pathogens

phenylketonuria, 302, 302

polydactyly, 329, 330

rabies, 635, 635–636

severe acute respiratory syndrome, 559, 560

sexually transmitted, 546–547, 547, 1025, 1025–1026, 1026. See also HIV/ AIDS

sickle-cell disease, 298, 299, 856–857

of skeletal system, 947, 947

stomach ulcers, 16–18, 17

swine fever, 560

Tay-Sachs disease, 119, 203, 217, 217, 289, 289

transport protein defects and, 103

treatment of, biotechnology and, 215–218, 216

Turner syndrome, 268, 268

type 1 diabetes, 215

viral, 559, 559–560. See also specific disorders

XXX females, 268, 269

XXY males, 268, 268–269

Dispersers, 639, 640

Disruptive selection, 344, 344

Diving, the bends and, 866

DNA. See Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

DNA bases, 75, 75–76

DNA fingerprinting, 220–223, 221, 222

DNA helicase, 239

DNA polymerase, 240

DNA probes, 207, 207, 207–208

DNA synthesis phase, 237

DNA viruses, 559

Dodder, 495, 495

Dogs

infant immunity and, 1065–1066

smell sense of, 935, 935

Dolly (sheep), 219

Dolomedes triton, 48

Domains, 413, 414

Dominant traits, 284, 284

codominance and, 294, 294

incomplete dominance and, 293–294, 294

Dopamine, 930

Dorsal hollow nerve cord, 470, 471

Double bonds, 46

Double fertilization, 512, 512, 512–513, 513, 742

Double helix, 76, 76, 180, 181

Double-blind experimental design, 18

Douglas firs, 507

Down, John Langdon, 266

Down syndrome, 265–267, 265–267

DPG. See Diphosphoglyceric acid (DPG)

DRD4 gene, 308

Drosophila pseudoobscura, 417

Drugs

altering cell membrane functioning, 98–99, 99

antibiotic, 435. See also Antibiotic resistance

beta-blockers, 98–99, 99

neurotransmitter mimicry by, 957–959, 958

performance-enhancing, 983, 983–984, 984

from plants, 516, 766, 766

smooth endoplasmic reticulum and tolerance to, 122

sources of, 516, 650, 650, 766, 766

urinalysis to screen for, 89, 819

valproic acid with anti-HIV drugs, 21, 21

weight-control, 904–905

Duckweed, 701

Dwarfism, pituitary, 977–978

Ear canal, 939

Eardrum, 939

Ears, 938–939, 939

hearing and, 938–940, 940

protection of, 1050

Earthworms, 458, 458–459, 706

Ebola, 1046

Echidnas, 480, 480

Echinacea, common cold and, 8, 9, 10, 11–12, 13–14

Echinoderms, 468–469, 469

Echolocation, 940, 940

Ecological footprint, 600

Ecology, 572, 572–573, 573

population perspective in, 573–574, 574. See also Population ecology

Ecosystem services, 651, 652

Ecosystems, 573, 610, 610–613

biomes, 611–613, 612, 613

chemical cycles in, 624–627, 624–627

elements of, 610–611, 611

energy flows in, 620–622, 621

energy pyramids and, 622–623, 623

reversibility of disturbances to, 662–663, 663

Ectoderm, 1028, 1029

Ectoparasites, 634, 635

Ectotherms, 478, 809, 810, 810

Eelgrass, 738

Effector cells, 1063, 1064

Effectors, 807

Eggs, 1005, 1005. See also Gametes

amniotic, evolution of, 475, 475

as cells, 87

donation of, 1021

plant, development of, 737, 737

production of, 255–256, 256, 1016, 1016–1018, 1017

EKG. See Electrocardiogram (EKG)

El Niño, 618, 618–619, 619

Elastin, 795

Electricity, sensitivity to, 942

Electrocardiogram (EKG), 837

Electromagnetic spectrum, 146, 146

Electron shells, 43, 43–44

Electron transport chain, 150, 151

Electrons, 41

bonding and, 43, 43–44, 44

Elements, 40, 40

in human body, 42, 43

number of protons in, 41, 41–42, 42

required for plant growth, 704

Elephant seals

caloric needs of, 877

polygamy among, 391, 391

sexual dimorphism in, 393, 393

Elephant shrews, caloric needs of, 877, 877

Elephantiasis, 850–851, 851

Elevation, high. See Low-oxygen conditions

Elimination, in digestive process, 888, 894, 894–895, 895

Embryo, 1008

Embryo sacs, 737, 737

Embryology, common evolutionary origins revealed by, 352–353, 353

Embryonic development, 1032, 1032–1034

Emergency contraceptive pills, 1024

Empirical knowledge, 6

Endangered species, 660, 677

Endangered Species Act (ESA), 677

Endemic species, 657

Endocrine cells, 972, 972

Endocrine disruptors, 992, 992, 992–993, 993

Endocrine glands, 798, 972, 972

Endocrine system, 803, 972, 972

Endocytosis, 107, 107–108, 108

Endoderm, 1028, 1029

Endomembrane system, 120, 120, 120–122, 121

Endometrium, 1016, 1016

Endoparasites, 634, 635

Endoskeletons, 946, 947

Endosperm, 503, 742

Endosymbiosis theory, 91, 91–93, 93

Endotherms, 478, 809, 810, 810

Energy, 134–175, 137

acquisition by plants versus animals, 688, 689

I-6

activation, 72

ATP and. See Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)

bond, 45

from carbohydrates, 56, 56–59, 169, 169

cellular respiration and. See Cellular respiration

chemical, 138, 138–139

conversion of, 139, 139–140, 140

from fats, 169, 169

flows from producers to consumers, 620–622, 621

fuel sources for, 169, 169

kinetic, 138, 138

light. See Light energy

from lipids, 62, 63

photosynthesis and. See Photosynthesis

potential, 138, 138

production without oxygen, 167, 167–168, 168

from proteins, 169, 169

requirements for, 136, 136–137, 137, 876, 876–877, 877

Energy pyramids, 622, 622–623, 623

Environment. See also Habitats

abiotic, 611, 611

adaptation to, through natural selection, 338–347

biotic, 610, 611

cardiovascular disease and, 848

cellular adaptation to, 117–118

extreme, archaea living in, 436, 436

global warming and. See Global warming

human activities and. See Human activities

interaction with genes, 302, 302–303, 303

mismatched, behaviors and, 379–380, 380

sex determination in turtles and, 263–264

Environmental disturbance, species richness and, 656, 656

Environmental intervention, unintended consequences of, 637–638

Enzymatic proteins, 97

Enzymes, 68, 72–74

cellulose-digesting, 896

DNA replication and, 239, 240

facilitation of chemical reactions by, 72, 72

lysosomes and, 119

membrane, 97, 97

non-functioning, 74, 74

regulation of reactions by, 73, 73–74, 74

restriction, 205, 205

Epibatidine, 650

Epidermis, of plants, 692, 692, 696, 699

Epididymis, 1010, 1011

Epipedobates tricolor, 650

Epithelial tissue (epithelium), 793, 794, 797–798

functions of, 797, 797, 798

EPO. See Erythropoietin (EPO)

Equus quagga, 415

Erie, Lake, 627

Erosion, reduction by non-vascular plants, 500, 500

Erwin, Terry, 465–466

Erythrocytes, 842, 843, 843–844. See also Red blood cells

Erythropoietin (EPO), production of, 216

ESA. See Endangered Species Act (ESA)

Escaping, 633, 633

Escherichia coli, 435, 538

generation time of, 539

Esophagus, 889, 889–890, 890

Essay on the Principle of Population (Malthus), 323

Essential amino acids, 69, 69, 880

Estrogen, 65–66, 66, 981, 982, 1020

longevity and, 990–991

monthly cycle and, 1020

mood and, 985, 985

Estuaries, 613, 613

Ethanol, 168

aspirin and, 224

harmful effects of, 961, 961

interference with neurotransmitters, 960–961, 961

response to, genetics and, 202–203, 203

Ethylene, 771, 775–777, 776, 776

Eucritta melanolimnetes, 413

Eudicots, 690, 690, 691

auxins killing, 775

leaves of, 700, 701

stems of, 698–699

Eukarya, 433, 437, 437. See also Animals; Invertebrates; Vertebrates

Eukaryotes, 89, 534

cell division in, 233

first, 553, 553–554

gene control in, 196, 196

Eukaryotic cells, 89, 90–93, 112–127, 432

adaptation to environment, 117–118

cell cycle of, 236, 236–238, 237

cell wall of, 124, 124–125

chloroplasts of, 126, 126–127, 127

chromosomes of, 234, 234

cytoplasm of, 114

cytoskeleton of, 114, 114–115, 115

distinguishing features of, 90, 91

endomembrane system of, 120, 120–122, 121

endosymbiosis and, 91–93, 93

Golgi apparatus of, 122–123, 123

invagination and, 93, 93

lysosomes of, 118–119, 119

mitochondria of, 115–117, 116

nucleus of, 112, 112–113, 113

structure of, 90–91, 90–92

vacuoles of, 125, 125–126

European mink, 631

Eutrophication, 626, 626–627

Evaporation

heat exchange by, 811, 812

from plants, 713, 714, 714

Evolution, 314–404, 317

adaptive radiations and, 429, 429

of amniotic egg, 475, 475

of behavior. See Behavioral traits, evolution of

changing allele frequencies and, 325–326, 326

common genetic sequences linking all life forms and, 355, 355

comparative anatomy and embryology and, 352–354, 353, 354

convergent, 354, 354, 424, 424–425, 425

Darwin’s theory of, 323, 323–324, 324, 348

of eukaryotes, 91–93, 93

evidence for, 348–357

of fins, 473, 473

fossil record of, 348–350, 349, 350

genetic drift and, 328–331, 329, 330

of horses, 349–350, 350

of humans, 483–485, 484

of jaws, 473, 474

of limbs, 475, 475

of lungs, 475, 475

macro. See Macroevolution

mechanisms of, 325–337

micro, 426–427, 427

migration and, 331, 331

misconceptions about, 358

movement from water to land and, 474–475, 475

multigenerational experiments and observations and, 356, 356–357, 357

mutation and, 326–328, 327

natural selection and. See Natural selection

ongoing nature of, 316, 316–318, 318

power of, 31

of primates, 481, 481–483, 482

recessive traits and, 335–337, 336

species distributions and, 351, 351–352, 352

species richness and, 656, 656

theory of, by natural selection, 15

of vertebrae, 475, 475

Evolutionary trees, 420, 420–425

ancestor-descendent relationships shown by, 421–424, 422

constructing by comparing similarities and differences among organisms, 422–424, 423

convergent evolution and, 424, 424–425, 425

DNA-based, 423, 423–424

nodes on, 421–422

Excretory system, 803

Exercise, cardiovascular disease and, 848

Exocrine glands, 798

Exocytosis, 107, 108–109, 109

Exoskeletons, 463, 946, 947

Exotic species, 664

introduction of, 661, 664–666, 664–666, 680

Experimental group, 16

Experiments, 16–22

bias in, 22, 22–23

critical, 11–13, 12

designing, 16–19

elements common to, 16

multigeneration, 356, 356–357, 357

reproducible and repeatable, 21, 21–22

Exponential growth, 575

External fertilization, 1007

internal fertilization versus, 1007–1009, 1007–1009

Extinctions, 430, 658–661

background, 430, 431, 658–659

causes of, 658, 658–660, 659

current, 660–661, 661

mass, 429, 429, 430, 430–431, 431, 658–659

Extracellular fluid, 805

Extremophiles, 551

Eye cups, 937, 937, 937–938

Eyes

compound, 937, 938, 938

human, 936, 936

protection of, 1050

single-lens, 936

vision and, 936–938, 936–938

Eyewitness identification

DNA analysis and, 178, 178–179, 179

reliability of, 8, 8, 10, 11, 13

Facilitated diffusion, 103, 103

Fake fats, 65

Fallopian tubes, 1016, 1016

Familial hypercholesterolemia, 107–108, 108

Families, 413, 414

Family resemblance, 278–287

Fast flushers, 202–203, 203

Fat, body. See Body fat; Obesity

Fat cells

cold stress and, 117–118

obesity and, 902

Fats, 883, 883–885, 884

digestion of, 891–892

energy from, 169, 169

fake, 65

glucose conversion to, 57, 57

hydrogenation of, 64, 64, 78

saturated, 62, 63, 64, 884, 884–885

trans, 64, 885

unsaturated, 63, 64, 884, 884–885

Fatty acids, essential and non-essential, 884

Feathers, 478, 479

Feces, 888, 894–895, 895

coprophagy and, 897, 897

Feedback

negative, 807, 807–808

positive, 808–809, 809

Female reproductive cycle, pheromones and, 1018, 1018

Female reproductive system, 802, 1016–1021

gametogenesis and, 1017, 1017–1018

hormone regulation of, 1018–1020, 1018–1021

structures of, 1016

Females, 382

Fermentation, 168, 168

Ferns, 501, 501–502, 502

Fertilization, 250

Fertilization (animal), 1005, 1005, 1007–1009, 1007–1008, 1022, 1022–1025

external versus internal, 1007–1009, 1007–1009

prevention of, 1023–1025, 1024, 1025

Fertilization (plant), 730, 731, 732, 741–742, 742

double, 512, 512–513, 513, 742

pollinators and, 510, 510–511, 511

self-, avoidance by plants, 743–744, 744

I-7

Fertilizer

composting to produce, 706, 706

human feces as, 706

Fetus, 1032

access to oxygen, 856, 856

Fever, 820, 1055, 1055–1056, 1056

Fiber, dietary, 60, 60, 883

Fibroblasts, 795

Fibrous roots, 695, 695–696, 696

Fighting back, 633, 633

Filaments (of stamens), 508, 509, 734, 734

Filtrate, 818, 818–819

Finches, of Galápagos Islands, 417, 418, 429

Fins, evolution of, 473, 473

Firs, 504, 505, 506, 506, 507

First law of thermodynamics, 140

First trimester, 1032, 1032–1033, 1033

Fish odor syndrome, 278, 279, 279

Fishes. See also specific fishes

cartilaginous, 473, 474

circulatory system of, 831, 831–832

endocrine disruptors and, 993, 993

evolution of jaws and fins in, 473, 473–474, 474

gills of. See Gills

lobe-finned, 474, 474

movement onto land, 474–475, 475

osmoregulation in, 816

ray-finned, 473–474, 474

Fishing spider, 48

Fitness, 338, 338–339, 339

inclusive, 376

Fixation, 328

Fixed action patterns, 368, 368, 368–369

Flagella, 90, 115, 115

Flagship species, 678–679

Flatworms, 456, 456–457, 457

eyes of, 937

fragmentation in, 1007

Fleming, Alexander, 521–522

Fleshy fruits, 515

seed dispersal and, 514, 514–515

Flies. See Fruit flies; Hanging flies; House flies

Flight

in insects, 467

in invertebrates, 467, 467

Flowers, 508, 509, 733, 733–737. See also Angiosperms

blooming of, gibberellins and, 772, 772

ethylene and, 776, 776

feeding and protecting in a vase, 170

male and female, 743–744

of monocots versus eudicots, 690

nectar and, 740–741

parts of, 733–735, 734

pH and color of, 705, 705

Fluid mosaics, 96, 96

Fluorine, dietary, function and sources of, 886

FMO3 gene, 278, 279, 279

Folic acid, 886

Follicles (in ovaries), 1017, 1017

Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), 977, 982, 1017

female reproductive cycle and, 1020

Follicular phase, 1020

Food. See also Diet; Nutrients; Nutrition

allergies to, antacids and, 53–54

contamination by bacteria, 564

conversion into nutrients. See Digestive process

labeling of, 27–28

need for, 874, 874–875

preparation of, 889

spicy, 908, 908–909, 909

Food chains, 621, 621–622

inefficiency of, 622–623, 623

“Food coma,” 840

Food webs, 621, 621

Ford, Gerald, 559

Forebrain, 948, 949, 949–952

Forests

acid precipitation and, 668, 668

coniferous, 612

destruction of. See Deforestation

rain. See Tropical rain forests

temperate deciduous, 612

tropical seasonal, 612, 613

Fossil fuels, 136

Fossils, 348, 348–350, 349

of australopithecines, 482, 483

of cells, 408, 408

difficulties classifying, 415, 415

Founder effect, 329, 330

Foxgloves, 733

Fragmentation, 1006, 1007

Franklin, Rosalind, 180

Freckles, red hair and, 304, 306, 306–307

Friendly behaviors, in humans, 398

Frogs

epibatidine from, 650

external fertilization in, 1007

life cycle of, 476, 477

mate guarding in, 388

Frontal lobe, 951, 951

Fructose, 56

Fruit flies

allopatric speciation of, 417

colonization by, 429

eyes of, 937

life extension in, 593–594, 594

starvation-resistant, 316, 316–317, 317, 357

Fruits, 744. See also specific fruits

development of, auxins and, 774, 775

enlargement of, gibberellins and, 772, 772

ripening of, 775–776, 776

seed dispersal by, 514, 514–515, 745–747, 746

vegetables versus, 756

FSH. See Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)

Fuels

biofuels, 136, 136–137

fossil, 136

Fundamental niche, 628, 629

Fungi, 518–525

beneficial, 521–522, 524–525

habitats of, 521, 521

life cycle if, 520, 520

mycorrhizal, 522, 522–524, 523

plant nutrient absorption and, 711–712, 712

structure of, 520–521, 521

G₀, 237

G₁. See Gap 1 (G₁)

G₂. See Gap 2 (G₂)

Gage, Phineas, 950, 951

Galápagos Islands

Darwin’s observations on, 321–322, 322

finch species of, 417, 418, 429

Gamete intrafallopian transfer (GIFT), 1037, 1037

Gametes, 236. See also Eggs; Sperm

male versus female, 255, 255–256, 256, 383, 513, 513

production by meiosis, 252, 252–256, 254–256, 729, 730, 732

Gametogenesis

in females, 1017, 1017–1018

in males, 1011, 1011–1013, 1012

Gametophytes, 499, 499, 500, 730

in ferns, 501, 502, 502

Gap 1 (G₁), 237

Gap 2 (G₂), 237

Gap junctions, 110, 110–111, 111

Garciaparra, Nomar, 5

Garlic mustard, 523

Garter snakes, mate guarding in, 388

Gas exchange. See Gills; Lungs; Respiratory system

Gases

greenhouse, 669, 669–671, 670, 672

intestinal, 892

Gastric freezing, 16–18, 17

Gastropods, 459, 459–460, 460

Gastrula, 1028, 1029

Gastrulation, 1028

Geek theory of autism, 298

Geese, egg retrieval in, 368, 368–369, 371, 371–372

Gene expression, 94

control of, 194–195

Gene flow, 331

as mechanism of evolution, 331, 331

Gene libraries, 207, 207

Gene regulation, 193–196, 194, 194–196

Gene therapy, 217–218, 218

Generations, alternation of, 732

Genes, 182–184, 183, 183, 184

alleles and, 184, 184

autism and, 298

function of, 186–187, 187

for height, 297, 297

independent assortment of, 304–305, 305

interaction with environment, 302, 302–303, 303

linked, 304, 306, 306–307

with more than two alleles, 295, 295–297, 297

pedigrees and, 291, 291–292, 292

regulatory, 195

Genetic code, 191, 191, 193

damage to, 197–200, 198, 199

Genetic disorders. See Diseases and genetic disorders

Genetic diversity

avoidance of self-fertilization in plants and, 743–744, 744

loss of, genetic engineering and, 214

sexual versus asexual reproduction and, 729

Genetic drift, 328, 328–331, 329, 330

Genetic engineering, 204, 208, 208, 208–212

Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act, 217

Genetic recombination, 253

Genetically modified organisms (GMOs), 209

safety of, 212–214, 213

Genetics, 276–313

ancestry testing and, 486

cardiovascular disease and, 848

family resemblance and, 278–287

genetic sequences linking all life forms and, 355, 355

genotype translation into phenotype and, 293–303

linked genes and, 304–307

Mendel’s experiments in, 282–285

mutation and, 326–328, 327

probability and chance and, 288–292

racial differences and, 438

Genital herpes, 547, 559, 1026

Genomes, 182, 182–183, 183

Genotype, 187, 286

phenotype and, 286, 286–287, 287

translation into phenotype, 293–303

Genus, 413

Geographic isolation

speciation with, 416–417, 418

speciation without, 417–418, 419

Geographic range, extinction risk and, 659, 659–660

Germ layers, 1028

Germination, 730

gibberellins and, 772, 772

of seeds, 748, 748–749, 749

Gestational diabetes, 376, 376–377

Ghost pipe, 523, 523

Giant kelp, 555

Gibberellins, 771, 771, 771–772, 772

GIFT. See Gamete intrafallopian transfer (GIFT)

Gigantism, 977, 978

Gills, 831–832, 853, 853, 57–858

blood circulation in, 857

diversity of, 857–858

gas exchange in, 857, 858

Gingras, Gabby, 918, 918

Ginkgo, 505

Giraffes, 846, 846

Gizzard, 889

Glands, 797–798

adrenal, 977, 978–979, 979, 982

bulbourethral, 1011

endocrine, 798, 972, 972

exocrine, 798

mammary, 479

parathyroid, 980, 981

pineal, 979, 982

pituitary, 976, 976–978, 977, 978

prostate, 1011

thyroid, 980, 982

I-8

Glial cells, 801, 920, 920

Global warming

coral reefs and, 455

greenhouse gases and, 669, 669–671, 670

Glomerulus, 817

Glucagon, 981, 981, 982

Glucose, 56, 56–57

diabetes and, 906–907, 907

Glutamate, 930

Glycemic index, 906

Glycerol, 95

Glycine, 68

Glycogen, 56–57, 57, 883

Glycolysis, 158, 158, 158–159, 161

Glycoproteins, 70

Glyptodonts, 322, 322

G₂/M checkpoint, 237, 238

GMOs. See Genetically modified organisms (GMOs)

Gnetophytes, 505

Goiter, 980, 980

Golden lion tamarin, 411

Golden rice, 209, 209–210, 210

Golgi apparatus, 122, 122–123, 123, 127

Gonads, 252. See also Ovaries; Testes

hormones produced by, 981, 982

Gonorrhea, 547, 1026

Goodall, Jane, 1013

Gram, Hans Christian, 539

Gram stains, 539, 539

Grant, Peter, 340

Grant, Rosemary, 340

Graphs, 23, 23–24, 24

Grass, multigeneration observation of, 356, 356

Gravitotropism, 779, 779, 779–780

Gray matter, 926, 927

Great Barrier Reef, 455

Great Basin bristlecone pines, 507

Great Dying, 430, 431

Green algae, 497, 497

Greenhouse gases, 669, 669–671, 670

increase in, deforestation and, 672

Greenland glacier, global warming and, 670

Ground tissue, of plants, 692, 694, 694, 696, 696

Group selection, 381, 381

Growth

of brain, cognitive training and, 954–956

by molting versus adding to body in continuous manner, 449, 451

need for new cells and, 242, 242

of plants. See Plant growth

of populations. See Population growth

proteins and, 879–881, 880, 881

reproduction and, 584, 585

of seeds, 748, 748–749, 749

Growth hormone, 977, 982

Growth rate, 575

G₁/S checkpoint, 237, 237–238

Guam, brown tree snake and, 664–665, 665

Guard cells, 692, 692, 702, 702

Guinea pigs, hazard factor and, 593

Gulf of Mexico

dead zone in, 642

oil spill in, 652–653

Gulf Stream, 618

Gymnosperms, 504, 505, 506, 506, 507, 507

leaves of, 700, 701

Habitat conservation, 678, 678

Habitat restoration, 679

Habitat services, 651, 652

Habitat tolerance, extinction risk and, 660

Habitats, 611, 611

extreme, plant adaptations to, 768–769

loss and degradation of, due to human activity, 661, 661

Hagfishes, 473

Hair, 479

color and texture of, shaving and, 9, 10, 11, 12, 14

male-pattern baldness and, 300–301

of mammals, 479

red, freckles and, 304, 306, 306–307

texture of, protein and, 71, 71

Hairs (plant), 764, 765

Halophiles, 436

Hamilton, W. D., 375

Hanging flies, mate selection in, 387

Haploid cells, 250, 251

in bryophytes, 499, 499, 500

in ferns, 501, 502, 502

of fungi, 520, 520

Hardy, G. H., 335

Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium, 336, 337

Hardy-Weinberg Law, 335–337, 336

Hawn, Goldie, 333

Hazard factor, determinants of, 592, 592–593

Hb^S allele, 556

hCG. See Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG)

HDL. See High-density lipoproteins (HDL)

Health. See also Diseases and genetic disorders

hormones and, 990, 990–991, 991

Hearing, 938–940, 940

Heart, 829, 830, 830. See also Circulatory systems

atria of, 831, 831

of birds and mammals, 832, 832

diseases of, 847, 847–849, 849

electrical activity in, 836–837, 837

of fishes, 831, 831

human, 834–836, 834–836

of reptiles, 833

ventricles of, 831, 831

Heart attacks, 847, 847

Heart murmurs, 836

Heart valves, 836

Heat. See also Global warming; Temperatures; Thermoregulation

sensitivity to, 942, 942

Heat capacity, of water, 49–50, 50

Heat exchange mechanisms, 811, 812

Heat stroke, 804, 804–805

Height genes, 297, 297

Height, of plants versus animals, 688, 689

Heliconius, 416, 766

Heliotropism, 779

Helper T cells, 1066, 1066–1067, 1067

Hematocrit, 843

Hemlock, 765

Hemoglobin, 843, 854, 854

adaptation to low-oxygen conditions and, 864, 864, 865

gene coding for, evolution and, 355, 355

oxygen binding to, 854–857, 855, 856

Hemolymph, 829, 829–830

Hepatitis, 1026

Herbivores, 620, 621, 875, 875, 875–876

Herbivory, defenses against, 764–766

Herbs, 639

Heredity, 280

Heritability, 333

natural selection and, 332–333, 333

Hermaphrodites, 262

Hermaphroditism, 269, 743

Heroin, 957

Herpes

genital, 547, 559, 1026

oral, 559

Heterotherms, 810–811, 811

Heterozygous genotype, 285

HGH. See Human growth hormone (HGH)

Hibernation, 810, 810–811, 811

Hiding, 633, 633

Hierarchical organization

of animal body, 793–794, 794

of life, 31

High elevation. See Low-oxygen conditions

High-density lipoproteins (HDL), cardiovascular disease and, 848–849, 849

Himalayan rabbits, 302–303, 303

Hindbrain, 948, 949

Hippocampus, 952, 953, 953

Hippocrates, 813

Histamine, 1054, 1055

Histones, 234

HIV/AIDS, 547, 1026, 1069–1071, 1070, 1071

course of, 1069–1070, 1070

difficulty of controlling, 561–563, 562, 563, 1070–1071, 1071

mode of infection by HIV and, 100–101, 101

pandemic of, 559

prevalence of, 1071, 1071

treatment of, 1071

Homeostasis, 805, 805–809, 806

fever and, 820

negative and positive feedback systems influencing, 807–809, 807–808

temperature control and, 809–813, 810–812

Homeotherms, 810, 811

Homer, 280

Homo erectus, 482, 483, 484

Homo ergaster, 482

Homo floresiensis, 482, 483, 484

Homo habilis, 482

Homo heidelbergensis, 415

Homo neanderthalensis, 482, 483

Homo sapiens, 413, 415, 482, 484. See also Humans

Homologous features, 425

Homologous pairs, 252, 252, 253, 254

crossing over and, 257, 257

Homologous structures, 353, 353

Homozygous genotype, 285

H1N1 virus, 1046, 1046

Honest signals, 397, 397

Honeybees, waggle dance of, 395–396, 396

Hong Kong flu, 560

Hooke, Robert, 86

Horizontal gene transfer, 433

Hormonal contraceptive methods, 1023–1024, 1024

Hormone injections/implants, contraceptive, 1024

Hormones (animal), 968–1001, 971

adrenal, 978–979, 979, 982

behavioral effects of, 987, 987–988

as chemical messengers, 971–972, 972, 973

chemicals mimicking or blocking, 992, 992–995, 993

cognitive performance and, 988, 988–990, 989

estrogen. See Estrogen

health and longevity and, 990, 990–991, 991

human growth hormone production, 215–216, 216

mood and, 985–986

ovulation control by, 1018, 1018–1020, 1019

pancreatic, 981, 981, 982. See also Oxytocin

peptide or protein, 973, 974, 974

physique and physical performance and, 83, 983–984

of pineal gland, 979, 982

pituitary, 976–978, 977, 978, 982

sex, 981, 982

steroid. See Steroid hormones

target tissue regulation by, 973–995, 974

testosterone. See Testosterone

thyroid, 980, 980–981, 982

Hormones (plant), 770–777, 771, 771

flowering, fruit ripening, and stress response regulation by, 775–777

seed germination and stem elongation regulation by, 771–772, 772

seedling growth and orientation regulation by, 773–775, 774

Horses, evolutionary history of, 349–350, 350

Horsetails, 501, 501–502

Hosta, 700

Hosts, 556, 634

House flies, mate guarding in, 388

HPV. See Human papillomavirus (HPV)

Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest, 611

Hudson, Kate, 333

Hudson’s Bay Company, 579

Human activities, 662–673

acid rain and, 666–668, 667, 668

deforestation and, 671–673, 671–673

greenhouse gases and, 669, 669–671, 670

introduction of non-native species and, 664–666, 664–666, 680

mass extinction due to, 660–661, 661

reversibility of ecosystem disturbances due to, 662–663, 663

Human babies, fear of snakes in, 370, 370

Human body

elements in, 42, 43

pH and, 52–53, 53

Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), 1021

I-9

Human development, prenatal. See Prenatal development

Human feces, as fertilizer, 706

Human Genome Project, 76

Human growth hormone (HGH), production of, 215–216, 216

Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), 561, 1069. See also HIV/AIDS

Human papillomavirus (HPV), 1026

Human population, 595–602

age distribution of, 595

demographic transitions and, 597–598, 598

growth of, 595–601

limit to, 599–601, 599–601

Humans

blood flow in, 834–836, 834–836, 838, 838–840, 839

current mass extinction due to activity of, 660–661, 661

evolution of, 481, 481–483, 482, 483–485, 484

eyes of, 936, 936

friendly behaviors in, 398

initial migration out of Africa, 483–485, 484

lungs of, 859, 859

mating systems of, 392, 392–393

number of offspring produced by, 382

osmoregulation in, 817–819, 817–819

pregnancy in. See Pregnancy

prenatal development in. See Prenatal development

sex determination in, 260, 260–261, 261

similarity of human and chimpanzee genes and, 481–482

Humoral immunity, 1062, 1062–1063

Humus, 705, 706

Hunger, 876, 876

Hutchinson-Gilford progeria syndrome, 233

Hybrid individuals, 413

Hybridization, 416

difficulties classifying species and, 415, 416

Hydrogen

bonding of, 45

formation of molecules containing, 406, 407, 407

Hydrogen bonds, 46, 46–47, 47

in water, 48, 48–49

Hydrophilic molecules, 62, 95, 95

Hydrophobic molecules, 62, 95, 95

Hydroponically grown plants, 704, 704

Hydrostatic skeletons, 946, 947

Hypertension, 846

Hyperthermia, 804

Hypertonic solutions, 104, 104, 105

Hyphae, 519

Hypotension, 846

Hypothalamus, 948, 950, 950, 976

pituitary control by, 976–978, 977, 978

Hypothermia, 805

Hypotheses, 9

formulating, 9–10, 10

null, 9–10

testable predictions and, 10–11, 11

theory and, 15

Hypotonic solutions, 104, 104, 105

Ice

density of, 50, 50

origin of life in, 409–410

ICSI. See Intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI)

Illness. See Diseases and genetic disorders

Immune system, 803, 1047

AIDs and, 1069–1071, 1070, 1071

allergies and, 1072, 1072–1073, 1073

autoimmune diseases and, 1068, 1068–1069, 1069

boosting, 1074

dogs and infants and, 1065–1066

physical barriers and, 1047, 1048–1050, 1048–1050

Immunity, 1044–1079, 1058

cell-mediated, 1062, 1063

humoral, 1062, 1062–1063

non-specific. See Non-specific immunity

specific. See Specific immunity

Inclusive fitness, 376

Incomplete dominance, 293, 293–294, 294

Incomplete metamorphosis, 467, 468

“Incomplete” proteins, 880, 881

Independent variables, 24, 24, 24

Indicator species, 679

Individual organisms, 573

Infants

hand babbling in, 953, 953

immunity of, dogs and, 1065–1066

thermoregulation in, 812, 812–813

Infection

clonal selection and, 1063–1064, 1064

immune system and. See Immune system; Immunity

Infertility, 1036

Inflammation, 820

Inflammatory response, 1053, 1053–1055, 1054

Influenza, 559–561

H1N1, 1046, 1046

pandemics of, 559, 559–560

vaccines against, 1058–1059, 1059

Influenza A virus, 560–561, 561

Ingestion, in digestive process, 888, 889, 889, 889–890

Inheritance, 333

Inhibitors, 73, 73, 73–74

Innate behaviors, 368, 368, 368–369

Innate system. See Non-specific immunity

Insectivorous Plants (Darwin), 709

Insects, 464, 465. See also specific insects

cellulose digestion by, 896

eyes of, 937, 938, 938

flight in, 467

hearing in, 940

metamorphosis in, 467, 467–468

osmoregulation in, 815–816

plants eating, 517, 517, 708, 708, 709–710

pollination by, 510, 510, 739, 739

wings of, evolution of, 347, 347

Instincts, 368, 368, 368–369

Insulin, 108–109, 109, 981, 981, 982

Integumentary system, 803, 1048. See also Hair

as physical barrier, 1048–1050, 1049, 1050

Intelligence, of invertebrates, 462, 462

Interferons, 1053

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 670

Intermediate filaments, 114, 114

Intermembrane space, 117

Internal fertilization, 1007

external fertilization versus, 1007–1009, 1007–1009

Interneurons, 921, 921

Interphase, 236, 236, 237, 245

meiosis and, 252–253, 254

Intersex individuals, 269

Interstitial fluid, 805, 829

Intestinal gas, 552, 552, 892

Intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI), 1037

Intrauterine devices (IUDs), 1024, 1024–1025

Introduced species, 664, 664–666, 664–666

Introns, 185

Invagination, 93, 93

Invasive species, 664, 664–666, 664–666

Invertebrates, 450, 451, 452–465, 467–469. See also specific invertebrates

arthropods, 463, 463–465, 464

balance and motion senses in, 942

cnidarians, 454, 454–456, 455

echinoderms, 468–469, 469

endocrine disruptors and, 993, 993

flight in, 467, 467