Alert Listeners to Key Source Information

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An oral citation credits the source of speech material that is derived from other people’s ideas. For each source, plan on briefly alerting the audience to the following:

  1. The author or origin of the source (“documentary filmmaker Ken Burns . . .”; or “On the National Science Foundation Web site . . .”)
  2. The type of source (magazine, book, personal interview, Web site, blog, online video, etc.)
  3. The title or a description of the source (“In the book Endangered Minds . . .”; or “In an article on sharks . . .”)
  4. The date of the source (“The article, published in the October 10th, 2012, issue . . .” or “According to a report on cheating on the SAT, posted online September 28, 2012, on the Daily Beast . . .”)

Spoken citations need not include a complete bibliographic reference (exact title, full names of all authors, volume, and page numbers); doing so will interrupt the flow of your presentation and unnecessarily divert listeners’ attention. However, do keep a running list of source details for a bibliography to appear at the end of your speech draft or outline. (For guidelines on creating a written bibliography for your speeches, see Appendix A.) In place of bibliographic details, focus on presenting sources in a rhetorically effective manner.

Establish the Source’s Trustworthiness

Too often, inexperienced speakers credit their sources in bare-bones fashion, offering a rote recitation of citation elements. For example, they might cite the publication name and date but leave out key details, such as that the source is a leading authority in his or her field, that could convince the audience to accept the source as reliable and its conclusions as true. But discerning listeners will accept as legitimate the supporting materials you offer for your claims—examples, stories, testimony, facts, and statistics (see Chapter 8)—only if they believe that the sources are reliable and accurate, or credible.

Source reliability refers to our level of trust in a source’s credentials and track record for providing accurate information. If you support a scientific claim by crediting it to an unknown student’s personal blog, for example, listeners won’t find it as reliable as if you credited it to a scientist affiliated with a reputable institution.

While a source that is reliable is usually accurate, this is not always so.1 Sometimes we have information that contradicts what we are told by a reliable source. For example, a soldier might read a news article in the Wall Street Journal about a battle in which he or she participated. The soldier knows the story contains inaccuracies because the soldier was there. In general, however, the soldier finds the Wall Street Journal a reliable source. Since even the most reliable source can sometimes be wrong, it is always better to offer a variety of sources, rather than a single source, to support a major point. This is especially the case when your claims are controversial.

To demonstrate a source’s trustworthiness, offer a source qualifier, or brief description of the source’s qualifications to address the topic. Briefly mention relevant affiliations and credentials that will help listeners put the source in perspective and establish credibility (e.g., “researcher at the Mayo Clinic,” “columnist for the Wall Street Journal”). “From Source to Speech” on page 88 illustrates how you can orally cite your sources in a way that listeners will accept them.

Consider Audience Perception of Sources

Not every trustworthy source is necessarily appropriate for every audience. For example, a politically conservative audience may reject information from a liberal publication. Thus, audience analysis should factor in your choice of sources. In addition to checking that your sources are reliable, consider whether they will be seen as credible by your particular audience.2